Extraction of sweet and hot pepper and paprika oleoresin I. Overview, composition, process, innovations, and applications

J. Pablo Fernández-Trujillo

doi:10.3989/gya.2007.v58.i3.180

Authors

J. Pablo Fernández-Trujillo Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT).

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.2007.v58.i3.180

Keywords:

Capsaicinoids, Carotenoids, Color, Chili, Food processing, Hexane, Pungency, Tocopherols

Abstract

This paper reviews the definition and composition of paprika oleoresin. The review covers recent research concerning the conventional extraction process that uses organic solvents (mainly hexane), legislation, innovation, patents, applications, and perspectives in developing countries. The conventional process includes the extraction of the oleoresin usually with hexane as solvent, the miscella and meal disolventization, and a subsequent oleoresin degumming. The paprika oleoresin is used as additive colorant and is composed by esterified fatty acids such as the linoleic or the linolenic acids. This oleoresin and its components (carotenoids, capsaicinoids, and tocopherols), extracted under different conditions, are used in formulating nutraceutical, colorants and pharmaceuticals. The paprika oleoresin can become soluble by microencapsulation by mixing with gelatin or arabic gum. Paprika oleoresin extraction has future in Africa and iberoamerican countries.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

J. Pablo Fernández-Trujillo, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT).

Departamento de Ingeniería de Alimentos y Equipamiento Agrícola

References

Addang OMJ, Kaminski RJ, Howell MQ y Mensink J. 2006. Assesing the performance of pepper spray in use-of force encounters: the Dutch experience. Policing Int. J. Police Strat. Manag. 29, 282-305. doi:10.1108/13639510610667673

Aguilera JM, Escobar GA, del Valle JM y San Martin R. 1987. Ethanol extraction of red peppers: Kinetic studies and microstructure. Intl. J. Food Sci. Technol. 22, 225-232.

Anderson DM. 2003. Particles with improved solubilization capacity. Lyotropic therapeutics, Inc. Patent WO03000236. (3.01.2003).

Appendino G, Minassi A y Daddario N. 2005. Hot cuisine as a source of anti-inflammatory drugs. Phytochem. Rev. 4, 3-10. doi:10.1007/s11101-004-1395-7

Beatus Y, Raziel A, Rosemberg MY y Kopelman IJ. 1985. Spray-drying microencapsulation of paprika oleoresin. Leb. Wiss. Technol. 18, 28-34.

Benedikt S y Clifford A. 2000. Method for the conversion of xantophylls in plant material. PCT WO0007458. Kevin Ind. Inc. (E.E.U.U.). (17.02.2000).

Biacs PA, Czinkotai B y Hoschke A. 1992. Factors affecting stability of colored substances in paprika powders. J. Agric. Food Chem. 40, 363-367. doi:10.1021/jf00015a001

Borges P, Pino JA y Fernández N. 1997. Obtención de oleorresina de pimentón dulce. I. Evaluación de solventes de extracción. Alimentaria 286, 59-60.

Borges P, Fernández N y Pino JA. 1997. Obtención de oleorresina de pimentón dulce. II. Rendimiento y caracterización de la oleorresina. Alimentaria 286, 61-62.

Borges P, Mirabal E, Fernández N y Roncal E. 2001. Obtención y caracterización a escala piloto de la oleorresina de pimentón picante. Alimentaria 321, 51-54.

Bosland PW. 1992. Chiles: a diverse crop. HortTechnol. 2, 6–10.

Bosland PW. 1996. Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop en J. Janick, (Ed.) Progress in new crops, 479-487. Ed. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA, E.E.U.U. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html .

Boyadzhiev L, Kancheva D, Guiraud P y Gourdon C. 1999. On carotenoids and capsaicin extraction from red paprika (Capsicum annum L.) fruits. Hung. J. Ind. Chem. 27, 37-41.

Breithaupt DE, Bamedi A y Wirt U. 2002. Carotenol fatty acid esters: easy substrates for digestive enzymes? Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part B 132, 721-728. doi:10.1016/S1096-4959(02)00096-9

Cardona JA, Gil M, Benavides JF, Caicedo MR, Ríos LA y Restrepo GM. 2006. Extraction of oleoresin from sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Vitae (Medellín, Colombia), 13, 5-9. Catchpole OJ, Grez JB, Perry NB, Burgess EJ, Redmond WA y Porter NG. 2003. Extraction of chilli, black pepper, and ginger with near-critical CO2, propane, and di-methyl ether: analysis of the extracts by quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51, 4853-4860. doi:10.1021/jf0301246

Chenlo F, Chaguri L, Santos F y Moreira R. 2006. Osmotic dehydration/impregnation kinetics of Padrón pepper (Capsicum annuurn L. Longum) with sodium chloride solutions: Process modelling and colour analysis. Food Sci. Technol. Intl. 12, 221-227. doi:10.1177/1082013206065954

Constant HL y Cordell GA. 1996. Nonivamide, a constituent of Capsicum oleoresin. J. Nat. Prod. 59, 425-426. doi:10.1021/np9600816

Contreras-Padilla M y Yahia EM. 1998. Changes in capsaicinoids during development, maturation, and senescence of Chile peppers and relation with peroxidase activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 2075-2079. doi:10.1021/jf970972z

Coon D. 2003. Chile peppers: Heating up hispanic foods. Food Technol. Chicago, 57(1), 39-42.

Costa J. 2002. El pimiento con destino a la industria en España. Hortic. Intern. Reus, 163, 24-38.

Cuvelier ME y Berset C. 2005. Phenolic compounds and plant extracts protect paprika against UV-induced discoloration. Intl. J. Food Sci. Technol. 40, 67-73. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00909.x

Daisuke Y, Yukio S y Fureebaa FKK. 1993. Paprika coloring matter preparation for coloring food. Patente JP05316995. (3.12.1993).

Dallel J. 2001. Capsaicina: Propiedades farmacológicas y terapéuticas. El Dolor. 35, 7-15.

Daood HG, Illés V, Gnayfeed MH, Mészáros B, Horváth G y Biacs PA. 2002. Extraction of pungent spice paprika by supercritical carbon dioxide and subcritical propane. J. Superc. Fluids 23, 143-152. doi:10.1016/S0896-8446(02)00022-0

Directiva 88/344/CEE del Consejo de 13 de junio de 1988 relativa a la aproximación de las legislaciones de los Estados Miembros sobre los disolventes de extracción utilizados en la fabricación de productos alimenticios y de sus ingredientes. http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31988L0344:ES:HTML

Directiva 89/107/CE, del Consejo, de 21 de diciembre de 1988, relativa a la aproximación de las legislaciones de los Estados miembros sobre aditivos alimentarios autorizados en los productos alimenticios destinados al consumo humano. Diario Oficial L, 40, (11.2.1989), 27-36.

Directiva 1999/75/CE de la Comisión, de 22 de julio de 1999, que modifica la Directiva 95/45/CE por la que se establecen criterios específicos de pureza en relación con los colorantes utilizados en los productos alimenticios. Diario Oficial L, 206, (05.08.1999), 19–21.

Directiva 2003/114/CE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo de 22 de diciembre de 2003 por la que se modifica la Directiva 95/2/CE, relativa a aditivos alimentarios distintos de los colorantes y edulcorantes. Diario Oficial L, 24, (29.01.2004), 58-64.

De Marino S, Borbone N, Gala F, Zollo F, Fico G, Pagiotti R e Iorizzi, M. 2006. New constituents of sweet Capsicum annuum L. fruits and evaluation of their biological activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 7508-7516. doi:10.1021/jf061404z

Del Valle JM y Aguilera JM. 1999. Revisión: Extracción con CO2 a alta presión. Fundamentos y aplicaciones en la industria de alimentos. Food Sci. Tech. Intl. 5, 1-24.

Duarte C, Moldão-Martins M, Gouveia AF, Beirão da Costa S, Leitão AE y Bernardo-Gil MG. 2004. Supercritical fluid extraction of red pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.). J. Superc. Fluids 30, 155–161

Essential Oil Inc. (2007). Paprika oleoresin. Acceso 19.03.2007. http://www.essentialoil.in/paprika_oleoresin.html

European Commission. 1996. Reports of the Scientific Committee for Food en Food science and techniques series, 35–37. Office for Official Publications of the European Countries, Luxemburgo.

EVESA. 2006. Paprika oleoresin oil soluble. http://www.evesa.com/product/paoil.html Acceso 03.09.2006.

FAO. 2002. Paprika oleoresin. Acceso 16.08.2006. www.fao.org/ag/agn/jecfa-additives/specs/Monograph1/Additive-303.pdf.

FDA. 2006. Listing of color additives exempt from certification. Subpart A. Foods. Paprika oleoresin. Code of federal regulation (CFR) 73.345. Title 21, Volume 1. USA. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/cfr73345.html

Fernández-Trujillo JP. 2008. Extracción con CO2 supercrítico de oleorresina y otras fracciones de pimentón dulce y picante. Grasas y Aceites, aceptado.

Fernández-Trujillo JP y Escarabajal D. (2006). El proceso tradicional de elaboración del pimentón de Murcia y sus posibles innovaciones. Grasas y Aceites 57, 433-442.

Gibbs HAA y O’Garro LW. 2004. Capsaicin content of West Indies hot pepper cultivars using colorimetric and chromatographic techniques. HortScience 39, 132-135.

Gnayfeed MH, Daood HG, Illés V. y Biacs PA. 2001. Supercritical CO2 and subcritical propane extraction of paprika and quantification of carotenoids, tocopherols, and capsaicinoids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49, 2761-2766. doi:10.1021/jf001292q

Govindarajan VS. 1986a. Capsicum production. technology. Chemistry and Quality II: Processed products. Standard.World production and trade. CRC Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 23, 207-288. Govindarajan VS. 1986b. Capsicum production. technology. Chemistry and Quality III: Chemistry of the color, aroma and pungency stimuli. CRC Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 24, 245-355.

Guadayol JM, Baquero T y Caixach J. 1997a. Aplicación de las técnicas de espacio de cabeza a la extracción de los compuestos orgánicos volátiles de la oleorresina de pimentón. Grasas y Aceites 48,1-5.

Guadayol J M, Caixach J, Ribe J, Cabanas J y Rivera J. 1997b. Extraction, separation and identification of volatile organic compounds from paprika oleoresin (Spanish type). J. Agric. Food Chem, 45, 1868-1872. doi:10.1021/jf960266i

Harvell K y Bosland PW. 1997. The environment produces a significant effect on pungency of chiles. Hort Science 32, 1292.

Herrera J. 1988. Extracción continua de oleorresina de pimentón. Alim. Equip. Tecnol. VII, 199-204.

Hidalgo V. 2007. Comunicación personal sobre el proceso de extracción de oleorresina de pimentón. Chris Hansen. Santa Ana, Cartagena, Murcia.

Hirasa K y Takemasa M. 2002. Ciencia y tecnología de las especias. Ed. Acribia, Zaragoza.

Hornero-Méndez D y Mínguez-Mosquera M I. 2001. Rapid spectrophotometric determination of red and yellow isochromic carotenoid fractions in paprika and red pepper oleoresins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49, 3584-3588. doi:10.1021/jf010400l

Illés V, Daood HD, Biacs PA, Gnayfeed MH y Meszaros B. 1999. Supercritical CO2 and subcritical propane extraction of spice red pepper oil with special regard to carotenoid and tocopherol content. J. Chromat. Sci. 37, 345-352.

Jarén-Galán M y Mínguez-Mosquera MI. 1999. Quantitative and qualitative changes associated with heat treatments in the carotenoid content of paprika oleoresins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47, 4379-4383. doi:10.1021/jf981105c

Jung JM y Sung TK. 2000. A new method for analysis of capsaicinoids content in microcapsule. Kor. J. Food Sci. Technol. 32, 42–49.

Kanner J, Granit R y Levy A. 2002 y 2005. Increasing the bioavailability of carotenoids by enzymatic hydrolysis of the corresponding fatty acid esters. The State of Israel Min. Agric. and Rural Dev. PCT WO02094982 (28.11.2002) y PCT WO2005026739 (24.03.2005).

Karwe MV, Borneo R, Ghai G, Tepper B y Kocer D. 2006. Omega fatty acid fortified food products and methods for preparing same. Rutgers. The State Univ. NJ. PCT. WO2006017324. (16.02.2006).

Kato-Noguchi H y Tanaka Y. 2003. Effects of capsaicin on plant growth. Biol. Plant., 47, 157-159. doi:10.1023/A:1027317906839

Kinsella JE. 1971. Composition of the lipids of cucumbers and peppers. J. Food Sci. 36, 865-866. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1971.tb15546.x

Kobata K, Todo T, Yazawa S, Iwai K y Watanabe T. 1998. Novel capsaicinoids-like substances, capsiate and dihydrocapsiate, from the fruits of a nonpungent cultivar, CH-19 sweet, of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 1695-1697. Kobata K, Sutoh K, Todo T, Yazawa S, Iwai K y Watanabe T. 1999. Nordihydrocapsiate, a new capsinoid from the fruits of a nonpungent pepper, Capsicum annuum. J. Nat. Prod, 62, 335-336. doi:10.1021/np9803373

Koehler K, Jacobsen SJ, Soendergaard C y Kensoe M. 2000. A colouring substance composition and a method of manufacturing same. Chr. Hansen. PCT WO0070967. (30.11.2000).

Krajewska AM y Powers JJ. 1988. Sensory properties of naturally occurring capsaicinoids. J. Food Sci. 53, 902-905. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1988.tb08981.x

Krishnan S, Kshirsagar AC y Singhal RS. 2005. The use of gum arabic and modified starch in the microencapsulation of a food flavoring agent. Carboh. Polym. 62, 309-315. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.03.020

Kurppa L. 2004. A process and composition for preventing or reduction the formation of acrylamide in foods. SLK Found. PCT WO2004032647. (22.04.2004).

Lai SM, Gray JI, Flegal CJ y Cooper T. 1996. Deposition of carotenoids in eggs from hens fed diets containing saponified and unsaponified oleoresin paprika. J. Sci. Food Agric. 72, 166-170. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199610)72:2<166::AID-JSFA633>3.0.CO;2-1

Lemos ALDC, Rusig O y Carvalho PRN. 1993. Evaluation of different solvent on paprika oleoresin extraction. Arquiv. Biol. Tecnol. 36, 659-667.

Logan SS y Porzio MA. 1999. Flavored oil-in-vinegar microemulsion concentrates, method for preparing the same. PCT WO9955172. (4.11.1999).

López Meneses VH y Hillbur P. 2002. Could locoto be an alternative product to substitute coca growing? A case study of Chapare-Cochabamba-Bolivia. Master’s Thesis. Univ. Lund, Suecia. www.lumes.lu.se/database/alumni/01.02/theses/lopez_hugo.pdf

Macho A, Lucena C, Sancho R, Daddario N, Minassi A, Muñoz E y Appendino G. 2003. Non-pungent capsaicinoids from sweet pepper. Synthesis and evaluation of the chemopreventive. and anticancer potential. Eur. J. Nutr. 42, 2-9.

Markai S, Marchand PA, Mabon F, Baguet E, Billault I y Robins RJ. 2002. Natural deuterium distribution in branched-chain medium-length fatty acids is nonstatistical: A site-specific study by quantitative 2H NMR spectroscopy of the fatty acids of capsaicinoids. Chembiochem. 3, 212-218. doi:10.1002/1439-7633(20020301)3:2/3<212::AID-CBIC212>3.0.CO;2-R

McVeigh KE. 2005. Calcium dietary supplement. PCT WO2005030146. (7.04.2005).

Melgarejo LM, Hernández MS, Barrera JA y Bardales X. Eds. 2004. Caracterización y usos potenciales del banco de germoplasma de ají amazónico. Ed. Inst. Amazón Inv. Cient.-Sinchi y Univ. Nac. Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia. www.fao.org/inpho/content/documents/vlibrary/ad419s/ad419s00.pdf

Mínguez-Mosquera MI y Hornero-Méndez D. 1993. Separation and quantification of the carotenoid pigments in red peppers (Capsicum annuum L.), paprika, and oleoresin by reversed-phase HPLC. J. Agric. Food Chem. 41, 1616-1620. doi:10.1021/jf00034a018 Mínguez-Mosquera MI y Pérez-Gálvez A. 1998a. Study of lability and kinetics of the main carotenoid pigments of red pepper in the de-esterification reaction. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 566-569. doi:10.1021/jf970632d

Mínguez-Mosquera MI y Pérez-Gálvez A. 1998b. Color quality in paprika oleoresins. J. Agric. Food Chem, 46, 5124-5127. doi:10.1021/jf980728n

Morabito E y Doerner W. 1997. Police use of less-than-lethal force: Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) spray. J. Police Strat. Manag. 20, 680-697. doi:10.1108/13639519710368099

Nagabhushan M y Bhide SV. 2006. Mutagenicity of chilli extract and capsaicin in short-term tests. Environmental Mutagesis 7, 881-888. doi:10.1002/em.2860070609 Navarro F y Costa J. 1993. La oleorresina de pimentón. Ed. Univ. Murcia, Murcia, España.

Navarro F y Costa J. 1992. La oleorresina de pimentón en la región de Murcia. Agrícola Vergel 11(124), 255-261.

OECD Environment Directorate. 2006. Consensus document on the biology of the Capsicum annuum complex (chili peppers, hot peppers and wweet peppers). OECD Environ. Health Saf. Pub. Ser. Harmon. Reg. Oversight Biotechnol. No 36, París. link

Olajos EJ y Salem H. 2001. Riot control agents: pharmacology, toxicology, biochemistry and chemistry. J. Appl. Toxicol. 21, 355–391. doi:10.1002/jat.767

Ordóñez AI, Ibáñez FC y Torre P. 2002. Estudio preliminar sobre la sensibilidad humana a la capsicina como responsable de la percepción del picante. Alimentaria 335, 123-126.

Pérez-Gálvez A, Garrido-Fernández J, Mínguez-Mosquera MI, Lozano-Ruiz M y Montero-de-Espinosa V. 1999. Fatty acid composition of two new pepper varieties (Capsicum annuum L.) Jaranda and Jariza. Effect of drying process and nutritional aspects. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 76, 205-208. doi:10.1007/s11746-999-0219-8

Pérez-Gálvez A, Jarén-Galán M y Mínguez-Mosquera MI. 2000. Effect of high-temperature degradative processes on ketocarotenoids present in paprika oleoresins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 2966-2971. doi:10.1021/jf0000979

Pérez-Gálvez A, Jarén-Galán M y Mínguez-Mosquera I. 2006. Processing of red pepper fruits (Capsicum annuum L.) for production of paprika and paprika oleoresin en Hui YH, Barta J, Cano MP, Gusek TW, Sidhu J y Sinha N (Eds.) Handbook of fruits and fruit processing 30, 565-579. Blackwell Pub., Oxford, UK.

Pérez-Gálvez A, Martin HD, Sies H y Stahl W. 2003. Incorporation of carotenoids from paprika oleoresin into human chylomicrons. Br. J. Nutr, 89, 787-793. doi:10.1079/BJN2003842

Pérez-Gálvez A y Mínguez-Mosquera MI. 2004. Degradation, under non-oxygen-mediated autooxidation, of carotenoid profile present in paprika oleoresins with lipid substrates of different fatty acid composition. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52, 632-637. doi:10.1021/jf0351063

Perva-Uzunalic A, Skerget M, Weinreich B y Knez Z. 2004. Extraction of chilli pepper (var. Byedige) with supercritical CO2: Effect of pressure and temperature on capsaicinoid and colour extraction efficiency. Food Chem. 87, 51-58. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.10.016

Peusch M, Muller-Seitz E, Petz M, Muller A y Anklam E. 1997. Extraction of capsaicinoids from chillies (Capsicum frutescens L) and paprika (Capsicum annuum L) using supercritical fluids and organic solvents. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. A 204, 351–355. doi:10.1007/s002170050089

Pino J, Sauri-Duch E y Marbot R. 2006. Changes in volatile compounds of Habanero chile pepper (Capsicum chinense Jack. cv. Habanero) at two ripening stages. Food Chem. 94, 394-398. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.11.040

Real Decreto 2107/1996 de 20 de septiembre. Se establecen las normas de identidad y pureza de los colorantes utilizados en los productos alimenticios. Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo (España). BOE 16.10.1996, 399-400.

Reilly CA, Crouch DJ y Post GS. 2001. Quantitative analysis of capsaicinoids in fresh peppers, oleoresin Capsicum and pepper spray products. J. Forens. Sci. 46, 502-509.

Rosa A, Delana M, Casu V, Paccagnini S, Appendino G, Ballero M y Dessia MA. 2002. Antioxidant activity of capsinoids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50, 7396-7401. doi:10.1021/jf020431w

Rosenberg M. y Lee SJ. 2004.Water-insoluble, whey protein-based microspheres prepared by an all-aqueous process. J. Food Sci., 69, FEP50-FEP58. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.tb17867.x

Salmerón P y Romojaro F. 1975. Estudio sobre la obtención de oleorresina de pimentón. Rev. Agroq. Tecnol. Alim. 15, 560-572.

Santos AB, Favaro-Trinidade CS y Grosso CRF. 2005. Preparation and characterization of paprika oleoresin microcapsules obtained by spray drying. Ciênc. Tecnol. Aliment. (Campinas, Brasil) 25, 322-326.

Santos AB, Favaro-Trinidade CS y Grosso CRF. 2006. Functionality of microencapsulated paprika oleoresin in arabic gum and rice starch/gelatin. Pesquisa Agropec. Brasileira 41, 351-354.

Suhaj M. 2006. Spice antioxidants isolation and their antiradical activity: a review. J. Food Comp. Anal. 19, 531–537. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2004.11.005

Tadanori A, Isao Y, Tetsuya M e Ito H. 1988. Method of concentrating natural pigment. Patente. JP63112659. Mitsubishi Kakoki KK y Yasuma Koshinryo. (17.05.1988).

Tetsuya N, Mitsuhide Y y Hayato H. 2001. Paprika coloring matter preparation. Patente JP2001252043. Hasegawa Co. Ltd. Publ. (18.09.2001).

Tewksbury JJ y Nabhan GP. 2001. Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies. Nature 412, 403-404. doi:10.1038/35086653

Thurman T, Lohmeyer DL y Olds DF. 2004. Color-changing beverage compositions. Mattel, Inc. PCT WO2004019704. (11.03.2004).

Todd P. 1998. High temperature countercurrent solvent extraction of Capsicum solids. Kalamazoo Holdings, Inc. PCT WO9825483. (18.06.1998).

Union Europea. 2006. Propuesta de Reglamento del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo sobre aditivos alimentarios. COM(2006) 428 final. 2006/0145 (COD). Bruselas, 28.7.2006.

UNCTAD/WTO. International Trade Center. 2004. Marketing manual and web directory for organic spices, herbs and essential oils. www.intracen.org/mds/sectors/spices/manual_2.pdf

Vesper H y Nitz S. 1997 a. Composition of extracts from paprika (Capsicum annuum L.) obtained by conventional and supercritical fluid extraction. Adv. Food Sci. 19, 172–177.

Vesper H y Nitz S. 1997 b. Changes of SFE and hexane extracts from paprika (Capsicum annuum L.) during storage. Adv. Food Sci. 19,178-183.

Vidal-Aragón MC, Sabio E, Lozano M y Montero de Espinosa V. 1998. Identificación de la fracción volátil del pimentón de La Vera mediante espacio de cabeza dinámico y CG/EM. Alimentaria 293, 27-32.

Viñas P, Campillo N y Hernández-Córdoba M. 1992. Direct determination of tocopherols in paprika and paprika oleoresin by liquid chromatography. Mikrochim. Acta 106, 293-302. doi:10.1007/BF01242102

Winning M. e Isager PP. 1997. Water dispersible compositions containing natural hydrophobic pigment, method of preparing same and their use. Chris Hansen A/S.WO9726802. (31.07.1997).

Wu CM y Liou SE. 1986. Effect of tissue disruption on volatile constituents of bell peppers. J. Agric. Food Chem. 34, 770-772. doi:10.1021/jf00070a044

Xiang YF, Yang JZ, Li PF, Wang LQ y Cheng M. 1997. Microencapsulation of Capsicum oleoresin. Food Sci. China, 18 (11), 27–30. Citado por FSTA 1998-09-T0626.

Yao J, Nair MG y Chandra A. 1994. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of Scotch Bonnet (Capsicum annuum) and quantification of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. J. Agric. Food Chem. 42, 1303-1305. doi:10.1021/jf00042a010

Zarc International. 2006. Información técnica de oleorresina de pimiento. http://www.zarc.com/espanol/capstun/tech_info/oc_index.html Acceso 30.08.2006.

Zewdie Y y Bosland PW. 2000. Evaluation of genotype, environment, and genotype-by-environment interaction for capsaicinoids in Capsicum annuum L. Euphytica 111, 185-190. doi:10.1023/A:1003837314929

Zewdie Y y Bosland PW. 2001 a. Pungency of Chile (Capsicum annuum L.) fruit is affected by node position. HortScience 35, 137-139.

Zewdie Y y Bosland PW. 2001 b. Capsaicinoids profiles are not good chemotaxonomic indicators for Capsicum species. Biochem Syst Ecol. 29, 161–169. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(00)00041-7

Zilberboim R, Kopelman I y Talmon Y. 1986. Microencapsulation by a dehydrating liquid: Retention of paprika oleoresin and aromatic esters. J. Food Sci. 51, 1301-1306. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13110.x

Zorn H, Breithaupt DE, Takenberg M, Schwack W y Berger RG. 2003. Enzymatic hydrolysis of carotenoid esters of marigold flowers (Tagetes erecta L.) and red paprika (Capsicum annuum L.). Enzyme Microb. Technol. 32, 623-628. doi:10.1016/S0141-0229(03)00020-6