Grasas y Aceites 73 (3)
July-September 2022, e476
ISSN-L: 0017-3495
https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.0445211

Biochemical appraisal of the underutilized Hura crepitans seed oil: functional and inflammatory responses in albino rats

Evaluación bioquímica del aceite de semilla de Hura crepitans infrautilizado: respuestas funcionales e inflamatorias en ratas albinas

R.N. Ugbaja

Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Augustine University, Ilara-Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria
Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1456-8900

A.O. Simeon

Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6988-0032

E.I. Ugwor

Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5545-1541

S.O. Rotimi

Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3678-9977

C.O. Eromosele

Department of Chemistry, College of Physical Sciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Ogun State, Nigeria

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2192-9834

O. Ademuyiwa

Department of Biochemistry, College of Biosciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8354-1344

SUMMARY

Hura crepitans seed oil (HCSO) remains under-utilized, largely due to the scarcity in data regarding its biochemical properties. To investigate the functional and pro-inflammatory responses to HCSO, twenty-four male rats were grouped into four and received compounded diets containing 5%-HCSO; 10%-HCSO; 15%-HCSO; and 15%-AHO (as control) for eight weeks. The functional responses and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors were appraised. The organ function biomarkers in rats fed with HCSO-supplemented diets were statistically similar to those of control rats, except for uric acid and creatine levels, which were significantly lower in the HCSO-fed groups, and the urea level, which was elevated in all HCSO-fed groups. Also, HCSO significantly downregulated the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and their receptors (IL-1R and IL-6R), when compared to the control group. Our results highlight the reno- and cardio-protective potentials of HCSO, as well as its anti-inflammatory potentials.

KEYWORDS:  
Arachis hypogea; Hura crepitans; Inflammation; Organ function; Seed oil
RESUMEN

El aceite de semilla de Hura crepitans (ASHC) sigue estando infrautilizado en gran parte debido a la escasez de datos sobre sus resultados bioquímicos. Para investigar las respuestas funcionales y proinflamatorias al ASHC, veinticuatro ratas macho se agruparon en grupos de cuatro y recibieron dietas compuestas que contenían 5%-ASHC; 10%-ASHC; 15%-ASHC y 15%-AC aceite de cacahuete (aceite de cacahuete control), durante ocho semanas. Se evaluaron las respuestas funcionales y la expresión de citocinas proinflamatorias y sus receptores. Los biomarcadores de la función de los órganos en ratas alimentadas con dietas suplementadas con ASHC fueron estadísticamente similares a los de las ratas de control, excepto por los niveles de ácido úrico y creatina, que fueron significativamente más bajos en los grupos alimentados con ASHC, y el nivel de urea, que fue elevado en todos los grupos alimentados con ASHC. Además, ASHC disminuyó significativamente la expresión de citocinas proinflamatorias (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β e IL-6) y sus receptores (IL-1R e IL-6R), en comparación con el grupo de control. Nuestros resultados destacan los potenciales renoprotectores y cardioprotectores del ASHC, así como su potencial antiinflamatorio.

PALABRAS CLAVE:  
Aceite de semilla; Arachis hypogea; Función de los órganos; Hura crepitans; Inflamación

Submitted: 12  May  2021; Accepted: 20  September  2021; Published online: 15  September  2022

Citation/Cómo citar este artículo: Ugbaja RN, Simeon AO, Ugwor EI, Rotimi SO, Eromosele CO, Ademuyiwa O. 2022. Biochemical appraisal of the underutilized Hura crepitans seed oil: functional and inflammatory responses in albino rats. Grasas y Aceites 73 (3), e476. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.0445211

CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION

 

Seeds, which are valuable sources of fats and oils, comprise an essential component of the human diet (Hao et al., 2020Hao W, Zhu H, Chen J, Kwek E, He Z, Liu J, Ma N, Ma KY, Chen ZY. 2020. Wild melon seed oil reduces plasma cholesterol and modulates gut microbiota in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 68 (7), 2071-2081. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07302 ). Seed oils are finding more and more uses in various industries, e.g., as flavors and textures in food industries and as oleo-chemicals for petrochemical industries (Anyasor et al., 2009Anyasor GN, Ogunwenmo KO, Oyelana OA, Ajayi D and Dangana J. 2009. Chemical analyses of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) oil. Pak. J. Nutr. 8 (3), 269-272. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2009.269.272.). Africa, like most other (sub-)tropical continents, has these seeds and nuts in abundance but is yet to wholly utilize them, owing to the scarcity in data concerning their physical, chemical, biochemical, and industrial properties (Abdulkadir et al., 2013Abdulkadir MN, Amoo IA and Adesina AO. 2013. Chemical composition of Hura crepitans seeds and antimicrobial activities of its oil. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2 (3), 440-445. https://www.ijsr.net/search_index_results_paperid.php?id=IJSRON2013625 ). Nevertheless, some seed oils, like those from Arachis hypogea (groundnut) and Glycine max (soya beans), have received considerable attention and already play important roles in countries such as Nigeria (Esonu et al., 2014Esonu BO, Ozeudu E, Emenalom OO, Nnaji C and Onyeikegbulem IK. 2014. Nutritional value of sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed meal for broiler finisher birds. J. Nat. Sci. Res. 4 (23), 95-99. http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JNSR/article/view/18523/18794 ). However, most seeds remain underutilized, one of which is Hura crepitans (Abdulkadir et al., 2013Abdulkadir MN, Amoo IA and Adesina AO. 2013. Chemical composition of Hura crepitans seeds and antimicrobial activities of its oil. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2 (3), 440-445. https://www.ijsr.net/search_index_results_paperid.php?id=IJSRON2013625 ; Hao et al., 2020Hao W, Zhu H, Chen J, Kwek E, He Z, Liu J, Ma N, Ma KY, Chen ZY. 2020. Wild melon seed oil reduces plasma cholesterol and modulates gut microbiota in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 68 (7), 2071-2081. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07302 ).

H. crepitans L. (common name: Sandbox tree) is an evergreen, perennial and dicotyledonous plant of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). It has short, dark, thickly parked, and pointed spines on the trunk and branches and is often planted as shade trees in towns and villages in Nigeria (Ezeh et al., 2012Ezeh IE, Umoren SA, Essien, EE and Udoh AP. 2012. Studies on the utilization of Hura crepitans L. seed oil in the preparation of alkyd resins. Ind. Crops Prod. 36 (1), 94-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.08.013.). H. crepitans seeds embody a very vital source of oil, with diverse potentials. The seeds contain amino acids at levels comparable to the other utilized seeds, with even higher lysine, cysteine methionine, threonine, and histidine (Ezeh et al., 2012Ezeh IE, Umoren SA, Essien, EE and Udoh AP. 2012. Studies on the utilization of Hura crepitans L. seed oil in the preparation of alkyd resins. Ind. Crops Prod. 36 (1), 94-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.08.013.; Esonu et al., 2014Esonu BO, Ozeudu E, Emenalom OO, Nnaji C and Onyeikegbulem IK. 2014. Nutritional value of sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed meal for broiler finisher birds. J. Nat. Sci. Res. 4 (23), 95-99. http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JNSR/article/view/18523/18794 ). Moreover, the bark has been used as a traditional medicine to treat constipation, skin irritations, microbial and fungal diseases in humans and in veterinary practices (Adindu et al., 2015Adindu EA, Elekwa I and Ogwo JI. 2015. Phytochemical comparative screening of aqueous extracts of the leaves, stem barks, and roots of Hura crepitans (L) using GC-FID. Nat. Sc. 13 (12), 112-119. http://www.dx.doi.org/10.7537/marsnsj131215.15.). In Nigeria, however, the seeds are discarded as waste since there is no definite use for the H. crepitans seed oil (Adewuyi et al., 2014Adewuyi A, Awolade PO and Oderinde RA. 2014. Hura crepitans seed oil: an alternative feedstock for biodiesel production. J. Fuels, 2014, 464590. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/464590.). Oil from Arachis hypogea (AHO), known as groundnut oil or peanut oil, is one of the major vegetable oils, with as much as 6.05 million metric tons of AHO produced globally in 2019/20 (Akhtar et al., 2014Akhtar S, Khalid N, Ahmed I, Shahzad A and Suleria HAR. 2014. Physicochemical characteristics, functional properties, and nutritional benefits of peanut oil: a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 54 (12), 1562-1575. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.644353. ; Arya et al., 2016Arya SS, Salve AR and Chauhan S. 2016. Peanuts as functional food: a review. J. Food Sci. Tech. 53 (1), 31-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-2007-9. ). AHO is rich in essential vitamins and unsaturated fats but contains a low proportion of saturated fats; it also has good antioxidant properties (Arya et al., 2016Arya SS, Salve AR and Chauhan S. 2016. Peanuts as functional food: a review. J. Food Sci. Tech. 53 (1), 31-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-2007-9. ). It is therefore not surprising that it is one of the most utilized seed oils, whereas that from H. crepitans remain under-utilized, despite boasting comparable physical and chemical properties. The physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition of the seed and seed oil of H. crepitans have been reported (Oyeleke et al., 2012Oyeleke GO, Olayiwola OA, Latona DF. 2012. Chemical Examination Of Sandbox (Hura Crepitans) Seed: Proximate, Elemental And Fatty Acid Profile. Magnesium 112, 0-1. https://doi.org/10.9790/5736-0121013 ; Oyekunle and Omode, 2008Oyekunle JAO and Omode AA. 2008. Chemical composition and fatty acid profile of the lipid fractions of selected Nigerian indigenous oilseeds. Int. J. Food Prop. 11 (2), 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942910701302598.). Besides, previous studies demonstrated the antimicrobial potentials of essential oil from H. crepitans (Abdulkadir et al., 2013Abdulkadir MN, Amoo IA and Adesina AO. 2013. Chemical composition of Hura crepitans seeds and antimicrobial activities of its oil. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2 (3), 440-445. https://www.ijsr.net/search_index_results_paperid.php?id=IJSRON2013625 ; David et al., 2014David OM, Ojo OO, Olumekun VO and Famurewa O. 2014. Antimicrobial activities of essential oils from Hura crepitans (L.), Monodora myristica (Gaertn Dunal) and Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal A. Rich) seeds. Brit. J. Appl. Sci. Tech. 4 (23), 3332-3341. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2014/5088.) but left issues regarding its safety and other biochemical outcomes unexplored.

This study reports, for the first time, the functional and inflammatory responses to H. crepitans seed oil, in comparison with that of A. hypogea oil (a well-utilized oil), in a bid to fill the dearth of information regarding the biochemical characteristics of this under-utilized seed oil.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

 

2.1. Chemicals and reagents

 

Tris salt, n-hexane, diethyl ether, heparin, Tris, EDTA, boric acid, ethidium bromide, agarose, and hydrogen chloride were obtained from British Drug Houses Chemicals Limited, Poole, England. These and all other reagents used were of the purest grade available.

2.2. Plant materials and oil extraction

 

H. crepitans seeds, of good quality, were collected from Covenant University in Ota, Ogun state. The seeds were handpicked, air-dried, and then preserved. The seeds were identified and authenticated at the Department of Pure and Applied Botany, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, with the herbarium voucher number - FUNAABH-0082. The oil was extracted from H. crepitans seeds using the Soxhlet extraction technique, with analytical grade n-hexane as extraction solvent (Oniya, 2017Oniya OO, Oyelade JO, Ogunkunle O, Idowu DO. 2017. Optimization of solvent extraction of oil from sandbox kernels (Hura crepitans L.) by a response surface method. Energy and Policy Res. 4 (1), 36-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/23815639.2017.1324332. ), while unadulterated A. hypogea oil was purchased from the Kurmi market in the city of Kano, Kano State, Nigeria. Both oils were stored at 25 0C, in glass vials. Yield (%) was calculated as the percentage of the weight of oil divided by the weight of the seeds (Brühl, 1997Brühl, L. 1997. Official methods and recommended practices of the American oil chemist’s society, physical and chemical characteristics of oils, fats and waxes, section I. Ed. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 99 (5), 197-197. https://doi.org/10.1002/lipi.19970990510 ). The color and smell of the oils were determined by visual observation and sense of smell.

2.3. In-vitro assays

 

Peroxide value. An oil sample (1 g) was weighed into a 200-ml conical flask, followed by 25 ml of glacial acetic acid:chloroform solvent (2:1 v/v); saturated potassium iodide (1ml) was then added, and the mixture was left in the dark for 1 minute. Next, 30 ml of water were added, and the mixture was titrated with a 0.02 N thiosulphate solution using 5 M starch as the indicator. A blank determination was similarly carried out. Peroxide value was calculated from the equation:

P e r o x i d e   v a l u e   ( m E q / k g )   =   [ 100 ( V 1   - V 2 ) ] / W  

W = weight of sample (g); V1 = volume (ml) of thiosulphate solution in test; V2 = volume (ml) of thiosulphate solution in blank (Brühl, 1997Brühl, L. 1997. Official methods and recommended practices of the American oil chemist’s society, physical and chemical characteristics of oils, fats and waxes, section I. Ed. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 99 (5), 197-197. https://doi.org/10.1002/lipi.19970990510 ).

Acid value. The acid value of the oil sample was determined by dissolving 0.20 g of oil in 2.5 ml ethanol:diethyl ether solvent (1:1 v/v) and titrating with 0.1 N potassium hydroxide (KOH) while swirling using phenolphthalein as indicator. The calculation is as follows:

A c i d   V a l u e   ( m g   K O H / g )   =   [ 56.1   x   N   x   V ] / W  

N = Normality of NaOH; V = Volume (ml) of NaOH; W = Weight of sample (Brühl, 1997Brühl, L. 1997. Official methods and recommended practices of the American oil chemist’s society, physical and chemical characteristics of oils, fats and waxes, section I. Ed. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 99 (5), 197-197. https://doi.org/10.1002/lipi.19970990510 ).

Saponification value. The Sample oil (1 g) was weighed and transferred into an Erlenmeyer flask, after which 4 mls of ethanol and 2 mls of KOH were added. The flask (equipped with a reflux condenser) was heated in a water bath for 30 minutes with occasional shaking. The flask was cooled, a few drops of phenolphthalein were added, and the excess KOH was immediately titrated with 0.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl). A blank test was also carried out.

S a p o n i f i c a t i o n   v a l u e   ( m g   K O H / g )   =   [ ( a   -   b )   ×   28.05 ] / W  

a = volume (ml) of 0.5 M HCl consumed in the blank; b = volume (ml) of 0.5 M HCl consumed in the test; W= weight (g) of sample (Brühl, 1997Brühl, L. 1997. Official methods and recommended practices of the American oil chemist’s society, physical and chemical characteristics of oils, fats and waxes, section I. Ed. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 99 (5), 197-197. https://doi.org/10.1002/lipi.19970990510 ).

2.4. Experimental animals

 

Twenty-four (24) male albino rats (150-170g) used in this study were obtained from a reputable animal farm in Ota, Ogun State Nigeria, housed in separate cages under ambient conditions in the animal house of our department, and served food and water ad libitum. This study received ethical approval from the ethics committee of the Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (Ref No: FUNAAB/CBS/BCH/PG/14-0054). All conditions of animal experimentation conformed to the guidelines outlined by Percie du Sert et al. (2010).

After a two-week acclimation period, the rats were divided randomly into four groups of six animals each. The first group received a compounded diet containing 5% H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO), and the second group received a 10% HCSO-compounded diet, the third group received a 15% HCSO-compounded diet, while the last group (serving as the control) received a 15% AHO-compounded diet. The 15% AHO group was used as the control since this group received the standard seed oil (AHO) to which HCSO was being compared. The diets, compounded as shown in table 1, were given daily for eight (8) weeks with fresh water ad libitum.

Table 1.  Composition of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) -compounded diet.
Composition 5% HCSO diet (g/100g) 10% HCSO diet (g/100g) 15% HCSO diet (g/100g) 15% AHO diet (g/100g)
Maize 40 40 40 40
Flour binder 10 10 10 10
Soy beans 7 7 7 7
Groundnut cake 10 10 10 10
Fish meal 9 9 9 9
W/Offal 5 5 5 5
Bone 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Premix (Broiler) 2 2 2 2
Lysine 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Salt (NaCl) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Methionine 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
A. hypogea oil 10 5 - 15
H. crepitans seed oil 5 10 15 -

2.5. Sample collection

 

After eight weeks, the animals were sacrificed after an overnight fast under diethyl ether anaesthesia. Blood samples, collected via cardiac puncture, were centrifuged immediately for 10 minutes at 4000 rpm to obtain the plasma. Small portions of organs (liver, kidney, and heart) were stored in RNase-free water (-80 0C) for gene expression profiling.

2.6. Biochemical analysis

 

Liver function tests [direct and total bilirubin levels, and the activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)], kidney function tests (levels of uric acid, creatinine, and urea), and heart function tests (lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase activities) were determined in the plasma, using diagnostic kits obtained from Randox Laboratories Limited (Crumlin, United Kingdom).

2.7. Gene expression profiling

 

The gene expression profiles for pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors [tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1alpha (IL-1α), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), IL-1 receptor (IL-1R), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-6 receptor (IL-6R)] were assessed using semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) techniques. RNA was extracted from the organs using an Easy-Spin plus RNA mini extraction Kit (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany). The RT-PCR was carried out using the Transgen EasyScript® one-step RT-PCR super mix kit with gene-specific primers (Table 2). The intensity of the amplicon bands on 1% agarose was analyzed using a UV Transilluminator and the image band was quantified with Image J software (Rotimi et al., 2017Rotimi OA, Rotimi SO, Duru CU, Ebebeinwe OJ, Abiodun AO, Oyeniyi BO, Faduyile FA. 2017. Acute aflatoxin B1-Induced hepatotoxicity alters gene expression and disrupts lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in rats. Toxicol. Rep. 4, 408-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.07.006.).

Table 2.  Gene-specific primers
Genes Sequence (5`-3`) Template TM (ºC)
TNF-α
  • Forward: ATCCGAGATGTGGAACTGGC

  • Reverse: AAATGGCAAATCGGCTGACG

NM_012675.3 55.0
IL-6
  • Forward: CACTTCACAAGTCGGAGGCT

  • Reverse: AGCACACTAGGTTTGCCGAG

NM_012589.2 55.0
IL-6R
  • Forward: GTCAACGACACTGGGCACTA

  • Reverse: TTCAGCGGTCCCAAGGGATA

NM_017020.3 50
IL-1R
  • Forward: CTATACTTGCCGCACGTCCT

  • Reverse: AAGCACAGAACACGGCTGTA

NM_013123.3 54.4
IL-1β
  • Forward: GGGCCTCAAGGGGAAGAATC

  • Reverse: ATGTCCCGACCATTGCTGTT

NM_031512.2 56.2
IL-1 α
  • Forward: CCATCCAACCCAGATCAGCA

  • Reverse: TCTCCTCCCGATGAGTAGGC

NM_017019.1 55.7
β-Actin
  • Forward: GTCAGGTCATCACTATCGGCAAT

  • Reverse: AGAGGTCTTTACGGATGTCAACGT

NM_031144.3 54.4

2.8. Statistical analysis

 

Values are expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM). The levels of homogeneity among the groups were tested using one-way analysis of variance and Tukey’s test, with (p < 0.05) considered significant. For the in-vitro assays (two sample groups), the post-hoc test used was student’s T-test. All analyses were done using GraphPad Prism (version 8.0).

3. RESULTS

 

3.1. In-vitro and physiochemical results

 

The saponification value, peroxide, and acid value of AHO were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of HCO by 10, 33, and 50%, respectively. HCSO had a golden-yellow color compared to light brown for AHO. At room temperature (25 °C), the two oils were in the liquid state, and both had agreeable odors; while the observed percentage yield for HCSO and AHO were 35.28 and 32.00%, respectively (Table 3).

Table 3.  Some physicochemical properties of A. hypogea oil (AHO) and H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO)
Sample Saponification value (mg KOH/g) Peroxide value (meqO2/kg) Acid value (mg KOH/g) Color Odor
AHO 185.95 ± 1.67 15.70 ± 1.44 1.29 ± 0.19 Light brown Agreeable
HCSO 167.93 ± 3.75 10.50 ± 1.16 0.64 ± 0.02 Golden yellow Agreeable
P value 0.011 < 0.0001 0.028 - -

Values are mean ± standard error means of three replicates, with the level of significance determined by student’s T-test.

3.2. Effect of HCSO on liver function biomarkers compared to AHO

 

There was no significant difference (p < 0.05) in the assessed markers for liver function (i.e., levels of direct and total bilirubin, as well as activities of AST, ALT, and GGT) across the groups (Figure 1 A-E).

medium/medium-GYA-73-03-e476-gf1.png
Figure 1Effect of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) on liver function markers in the plasma of experimental rats. The oils were compounded into the animal diets, with varying percentage compositions (5 - 15%). AST = Aspartate transaminase; ALT = Alanine transaminase; GGT = Gamma-glutamyl transferase. Bars are mean ± standard error of mean (n=6). Bars bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA and Tukey test were used to analyze the results)

3.3. Effect of HCSO on kidney function biomarkers compared to AHO

 

Plasma urea levels were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in all HCSO groups compared to the 15%-AHO; while both uric acid and creatinine levels were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in the plasma of the HCSO groups compared to the 15%-AHO group (Figure 2).

medium/medium-GYA-73-03-e476-gf2.png
Figure 2Effect of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) on kidney function markers in the plasma of experimental rats. The oils were compounded into the animal diets, with varying percentage compositions (5 - 15%). Bars are mean ± standard error of mean (n=6). Bars bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA and Tukey test were used to analyze the results).

3.4. Effect of HCSO on cardiac function biomarkers compared to AHO

 

The activities of CK and LDH were significantly (p < 0.05) lower in 10% and 15%-HCSO groups compared to the 15%-AHO; while in the 5%-HCSO group, CK and LDH enzyme activities were not significantly (p > 0.05) different from that of the 15%-AHO (Figure 3).

medium/medium-GYA-73-03-e476-gf3.png
Figure 3Effect of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) on cardiac function markers in the plasma of experimental rats. The oils were compounded into the animal diets, with varying percentage compositions (5 - 15%). CK = Creatine kinase; LDH = Lactate dehydrogenase. Bars are mean ± standard error of mean (n=6). Bars bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA and Tukey test were used to analyze the results).

3.5. Effect of HCSO on relative gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors in the liver of albino rats, compared to AHO

 

The gene expressions of TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1R, and IL-6R, compared to β-actin, followed a similar pattern in the liver (Figure 4A, 4B, 4C, and 4F). Compared to the 15%-AHO group, the relative expressions of these genes were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased, with the least expression of these pro-inflammatory mediators observed in the 15%-HCSO group, followed by the 10%-HCSO group, and then the 5%-HCSO group (i.e., in a dose-dependent manner). The HCSO groups had downregulated expression of IL-6 compared to the 15%-AHO group, with the 15%-HCSO group having the lowest expression; while the 5% and 10%-HCSO groups had statistically similar 1L-6 expression levels (Figure 4E ). No significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed in the expression of IL-1β (relative to β-actin) across all experimental groups of animals (Figure 4C ).

medium/medium-GYA-73-03-e476-gf4.png
Figure 4Effect of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) on the relative gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors in the liver of experimental rats. The oils were compounded into the animal diets, with varying percentage compositions (5 - 15%). TNF-α = Tumour necrosis factor alpha; IL-1α = Interleukin 1 alpha; IL-1β = Interleukin 1 beta; IL-1R = Interleukin 1 receptor; IL-6 = Interleukin 6; IL-6R = Interleukin 6 receptor. Bars are mean ± standard error of mean (n=3). Bars bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA and Tukey test were used to analyze the results)

3.6. Effect of HCSO on relative gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors in the kidney of albino rats, compared to AHO

 

In a similar manner, the relative expression of gene coding for the pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors were significantly (p < 0.05) lower in the kidneys of the HCSO groups compared to the 15%-AHO group, except for the IL-1 receptor, where the 5%-HCSO showed no significant (p > 0.05) difference from the 15%-AHO group (Figure 5). Notably, the decreased relative expressions of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-6R followed a dose-dependent trend.

medium/medium-GYA-73-03-e476-gf5.png
Figure 5Effect of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) on relative gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors in the kidney of experimental rats. The oils were compounded into the animal diets, with varying percentage compositions (5 - 15%). TNF-α = Tumour necrosis factor alpha; IL-1α = Interleukin 1 alpha; IL-1β = Interleukin 1 beta; IL-1R = Interleukin 1 receptor; IL-6 = Interleukin 6; IL-6R = Interleukin 6 receptor. Bars are mean ± standard error of mean (n=3). Bars bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA and Tukey test were used to analyze the results)

3.7. Effect of HCSO on the relative gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors in the heart of albino rats, compared to AHO

 

Similarly, in the heart, the relative expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors were significantly (p < 0.05) downregulated, particularly by the 10 and 15%-HCSO diet, when compared to the 15% AHO group (Figure 6).

medium/medium-GYA-73-03-e476-gf6.png
Figure 6Effect of H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO) and A. hypogea oil (AHO) on the relative gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and their receptors in the heart of experimental rats. The oils were compounded into the animal diets, with varying percentage compositions (5 - 15%). TNF-α = Tumour necrosis factor alpha; IL-1α = Interleukin 1 alpha; IL-1β = Interleukin 1 beta; IL-1R = Interleukin 1 receptor; IL-6 = Interleukin 6; IL-6R = Interleukin 6 receptor. Bars are mean ± standard error of mean (n=3). Bars bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA and Tukey test were used to analyze the results)

4. DISCUSSION

 

The unprecedented surge in the world’s population, along with the resultant increased consumption of food and fuel, has made the search for alternative food and fuel sources a priority in the area of study. Seed oils now occupy influential positions in human diets and as alternative biofuels, owing mostly to their tolerability, availability, inexpensiveness, and a plethora of applications (Anyasor et al., 2009Anyasor GN, Ogunwenmo KO, Oyelana OA, Ajayi D and Dangana J. 2009. Chemical analyses of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) oil. Pak. J. Nutr. 8 (3), 269-272. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2009.269.272.; Lei et al., 2018Lei L, Chen J, Liu Y, Wang L, Zhao G and Chen ZY. 2018. Dietary wheat bran oil is equally as effective as rice bran oil in reducing plasma cholesterol. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 66, 2765−2774. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b06093.; Pachuau et al., 2019Pachuau L, Devi CM, Goswami A, Sahu S, Dutta RS. 2019. Seed oils as a source of natural bio-active compounds, in: Akhtar M, Swamy M, Sinniah U (Eds.) Natural Bio-active Compounds, Springer, Singapore, pp. 209-235. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7154-7_8 ). Despite the intensifying enthusiasm to elucidate the diverse health relevance and bioactivities of these seed oils, many are still under-studied, and one of such is H. crepitans (Abdulkadir et al., 2013Abdulkadir MN, Amoo IA and Adesina AO. 2013. Chemical composition of Hura crepitans seeds and antimicrobial activities of its oil. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2 (3), 440-445. https://www.ijsr.net/search_index_results_paperid.php?id=IJSRON2013625 ), partly due to lack of information regarding its biochemical properties. This study thus investigates the functional and pro-inflammatory responses to H. crepitans seed oil (HCSO), in comparison with A. hypogea oil (AHO), in a bid to fill that dearth of information.

Saponification value correlates inversely with average molecular weight (or, by extension, chain-length) of fatty acids in oil, implying that the lower the saponification value the higher the average molecular weight (or longer the fatty-acid chain) and vice-versa (Gunstone, 2009Gunstone F. 2009. Oils and Fats in the Food Industry, vol. 6. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, New Jersey. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444302424.). Peroxide value is used to monitor the oxidative deterioration (rancidity) of oils. Thus, a high peroxide value may indicate increased oxidation and formation of hydroperoxides (Gordon, 2004Gordon MH. 2004. Factors affecting lipid oxidation, in Steele R (Ed.) Understanding and Measuring the Shelf-Life of Food, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp.128-141. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781855739024.1.128.). The acid number is a measure of the number of carboxylic acid groups, i.e., the acidity of the oil sample, and a high acid value indicates oil with a reduced quality (Kardash and Tur’yan, 2005Kardash E and Tur’yan YI. 2005. Acid value determination in vegetable oils by indirect titration in aqueous-alcohol media. Croatica Chem. Acta. 78 (1), 99-103 https://hrcak.srce.hr/2797. ). In-vitro evaluations revealed similar physical properties (color, odor, and yield) between HCSO and AHO. However, the saponification, peroxide, and acid values were lower in the HCSO, indicating that HCSO may be of even better quality than AHO. Moreover, the values of these chemical properties obtained for HCSO compared favorably with previous values obtained for more utilized seed oils like those of soy bean, sunflower, olive, linseed, etc. (Gunstone, 2009Gunstone F. 2009. Oils and Fats in the Food Industry, vol. 6. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, New Jersey. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444302424.), which is suggestive of the quality of HCSO.

We also examined the effects of HCSO on the function of some vital organs. The liver, the largest internal organ, performs various metabolic functions that are essential for the continuity of life. Due to its strategic position and diverse roles, it is particularly susceptible to diseases (Owojuyigbe et al., 2020Owojuyigbe OS, Firempong CK, Larbie C, Komlaga G and Emikpe BO. 2020. Hepatoprotective potential of Hura crepitans L.: a review of ethnomedical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies. J. Complement. Altern. Med. Res. 9 (2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/jocamr/2020/v9i230136. ). Liver disease, currently among global health issues (Byass, 2014Byass P. 2014. The global burden of liver disease: a challenge for methods and for public health. BMC Med. 12 (1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0159-5. ), can be detected by carrying out liver function tests in the blood, such as levels of bilirubin and albumin, as well as the activities of some liver enzymes (Cheesbrough, 2006Cheesbrough M. 2006. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511543470.; Owojuyigbe et al., 2020Owojuyigbe OS, Firempong CK, Larbie C, Komlaga G and Emikpe BO. 2020. Hepatoprotective potential of Hura crepitans L.: a review of ethnomedical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies. J. Complement. Altern. Med. Res. 9 (2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/jocamr/2020/v9i230136. ). Bilirubin is formed from the breakdown of heme. This water-insoluble bilirubin (unconjugated or indirect bilirubin) is transported to the liver, via the blood, where it is conjugated with glucuronic acid (by glucuronosyltransferase) to form water-soluble bilirubin glucuronides (conjugated or direct bilirubin), which are then excreted via biliary excretion. Total bilirubin refers to both direct and indirect bilirubin (Cheesbrough, 2006Cheesbrough M. 2006. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511543470.). Liver enzymes (such as AST, ALT and GGT) are generally useful and rather sensitive markers of liver disease. Localized within the hepatocytes, these enzymes are released into circulation, following the compromise of the cell membrane (resulting from liver injury or disease) (Niemelä and Alatalo, 2010Niemelä O and Alatalo P. 2010. Biomarkers of alcohol consumption and related liver disease. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Inv 70 (5), 305-312. https://doi.org/10.3109/00365513.2010.486442.). Increased levels or activities in these biomarkers typically characterize liver damage or disease (Owojuyigbe et al., 2020Owojuyigbe OS, Firempong CK, Larbie C, Komlaga G and Emikpe BO. 2020. Hepatoprotective potential of Hura crepitans L.: a review of ethnomedical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies. J. Complement. Altern. Med. Res. 9 (2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/jocamr/2020/v9i230136. ). Indeed, the hepatoprotective properties of many treatments are assessed based on the reductions in the blood levels of these liver biomarkers. In this study, the activities and levels of these biomarkers in rats fed with HCSO-supplemented diets were not significantly different from that in rats fed with 15% AHO, indicating that HCSO did not damage the liver or impair its function. These findings are corroborated by Igwenyi et al. (2017)Igwenyi IO, Agu EA, Awoke JN, Edwin N, Famurewa AC, Obasi NA, Obasi DC. 2017. Antidiabetic and hepatoprotective effect of Hura crepitans seed extract in alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats. Int. J. Biol. Pharm. Allied Sci. 6 (9), 1771-1780. https://ijbpas.com/pdf/2017/September/1504287339MS%20IJBPAS%202017%204257.pdf., who reported decreased liver biomarkers (AST, ALT, total and direct bilirubin) following treatment of diabetic rats with H. crepitans seed extract (HCSE). They attributed these effects to its rich phytochemical constituents, such as alkaloids, carotenoids, flavonoids, etc., previously characterized by Adindu et al. (2015) Adindu EA, Elekwa I and Ogwo JI. 2015. Phytochemical comparative screening of aqueous extracts of the leaves, stem barks, and roots of Hura crepitans (L) using GC-FID. Nat. Sc. 13 (12), 112-119. http://www.dx.doi.org/10.7537/marsnsj131215.15..

The kidney, another major organ, primarily excretes wastes from the blood and are involved in other regulatory processes. However, because they are metabolically active and receive a quarter of cardiac output (despite weighing below 1% of total body weight); while also filtering out water from the filtrate (and may thus concentrate and accumulate toxic substances), the kidneys are particularly vulnerable to injury (Gheshlaghi, 2012Gheshlaghi F. 2012. Toxic renal injury at a glance. J. Renal Inj. Prev. 1 (1), 15-16. https://doi.org/10.12861/jrip.2012.07.; Shaterzadeh-Yazdi et al., 2018Shaterzadeh-Yazdi H, Noorbakhsh MF, Samarghandian S and Farkhondeh T. 2018. An overview on renoprotective effects of thymoquinone. Kidney Dis. 4 (2), 74-82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000486829.). Clinically relevant biomarkers of renal damage include urea, uric acid, and creatinine. Creatinine is produced by the muscle during unaltered catabolism excreted by the kidney, and may thus serve as an important criterion for kidney function. Urea, a waste product from dietary protein, is also filtered into the urine by the kidneys (Burns and Wortmann, 2011Burns CM, Wortmann RL. 2011. Gout therapeutics: new drugs for an old disease. Lancet 377 (9760), 165-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60665-4.). Uric acid, a product of purine metabolism, is a normal component of urine produced in conditions where there is cellular destruction and thus, degradation of the nuclear material and release of purine bases. These purines are, via a series of reactions, converted into either hypoxanthine or xanthine, which are then broken down by xanthine oxidase into uric acid. The excessive build-up of uric acid results in gout (Kanwal et al., 2018Kanwal A, Abida L, Sana A, Ahlam S. 2018. A systematic review on the prevalence, pathophysiology, diagnosis, management and treatment of gout (2007-2018). GSC Biol. Pharm. Sci. 5 (1), 50-55. https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2018.5.1.0077.). However, these biomarkers (creatinine, urea, and uric acid) are liberally filtered by the glomerulus and efficiently excreted via the urine with negligible metabolism by the kidney. Thus, increased levels in the blood, in most cases, may evince the onset of kidney failure (Burns and Wortmann, 2011Burns CM, Wortmann RL. 2011. Gout therapeutics: new drugs for an old disease. Lancet 377 (9760), 165-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60665-4.). While this current study did not carry out urinalysis, in light of the observed significantly (p < 0.05) reduced plasma levels of uric acid and creatinine in all HCSO groups compared to the AHO group, we hypothesize that HCSO promotes renal clearance of these excretory products, suggestive of its reno-beneficial potentials. Interestingly, the levels of urea were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in rats fed with the HCSO-supplemented diet compared to those fed the AHO supplemented diet. We attribute this elevation in urea level to the high amino acid content of the H. crepitans seed oil (Esonu et al., 2014Esonu BO, Ozeudu E, Emenalom OO, Nnaji C and Onyeikegbulem IK. 2014. Nutritional value of sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed meal for broiler finisher birds. J. Nat. Sci. Res. 4 (23), 95-99. http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JNSR/article/view/18523/18794 ), especially glutamate (about 14.41 g/100 g protein), as per the reports of Fowomola and Akindahunsi (2007)Fowomola MA, Akindahunsi AA. 2007. Nutritional quality of sandbox tree (Hura crepitans Linn.). J. Med. Food 10 (1), 159-164. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2005.062. . Thus, the increased urea level may be a consequence of increased amino acid catabolism, which obligates increased urea production (Higgins, 2016Higgins C. 2016. Urea and the clinical value of measuring blood urea concentration. Acutecaretesting Org. 1-6. https://acutecaretesting.org/en/articles/urea-and-the-clinical-value-of-measuring-blood-urea-concentration. ).

The heart, a muscular organ, pumps blood that carries nutrients and oxygen to other parts of the body and metabolic waste away from these parts through the blood vessels of the circulatory system (Gaze, 2012Gaze DC. 2012. The Cardiovascular System: Physiology, Diagnostics and Clinical Implications. BoD-Books on Demand, Norderstedt, Germany. https://doi.org/10.5772/2266.). Clinically relevant cardiac tests include CK and LDH activities in the plasma, which are quantifiable markers of the health/disease condition of the heart. CK couples the phosphorylation of creatine to phosphocreatine (PCr) with the dephosphorylation of ATP to ADP. PCr serves as an in-situ energy store for the swift regeneration of ATP. Creatine kinase (CK) is primarily cytosolic and is examined as a damage biomarker of CK-rich tissues, like the heart (Moghadam-Kia et al., 2016Moghadam-Kia S, Oddis CV and Aggarwal R. 2016. Approach to asymptomatic creatine kinase elevation. Clev. Clin. J. Med. 83 (1), 37-42. https://dx.doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.83a.14120. ). LDH, another cytoplasmic enzyme, converts pyruvate to lactate during anaerobic respiration and is extensively expressed in metabolically active tissues like the heart (Hu et al., 2015Hu EC, He JG, Liu ZH, Ni XH, Zheng YG, Gu Q, Zhao ZH, Xiong CM. 2015. High levels of serum lactate dehydrogenase correlate with the severity and mortality of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Exp. Ther. Med. 9 (6), 2109-2113. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2376.). Following cardiac injury/damage, these cytosolic enzymes are released into the blood. Thus, elevated activities correlate positively with various heart diseases (Hu et al., 2015Hu EC, He JG, Liu ZH, Ni XH, Zheng YG, Gu Q, Zhao ZH, Xiong CM. 2015. High levels of serum lactate dehydrogenase correlate with the severity and mortality of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Exp. Ther. Med. 9 (6), 2109-2113. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2376.; Moghadam-Kia et al., 2016Moghadam-Kia S, Oddis CV and Aggarwal R. 2016. Approach to asymptomatic creatine kinase elevation. Clev. Clin. J. Med. 83 (1), 37-42. https://dx.doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.83a.14120. ). Our results showed that the CK and LDH activities in rats fed the HCSO-supplemented diet were not significantly different from those obtained from rats fed with AHO. From these results, the HCSO did not provoke any significant damage to the organs (kidney, liver, or heart), at least in comparison with AHO.

Gene analyses revealed a dose-dependent inhibition of the relative expression of genes coding for pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and receptors (IL-1R and IL-6R) in the HCSO-fed groups compared to the 15%-AHO group. To the best of our knowledge, this current study is the first to provide data regarding the in-vivo anti-inflammatory effects of H. crepitans seed oil following oral supplementation. The previously available study on the anti-inflammatory effect of H. crepitans focused on its hexane and ethyl acetate extracts and used topical application on rat paws (Avoseh et al., 2018Avoseh ON, Ogunbajo LO, Ogunwande IA, Ogundajo AL and Lawal OA. 2018. Anti-inflammatory activity of hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of Hura crepitans L. Eur J Med Plants 24, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2018/41439.). Although inflammation is a defence mechanism in response to noxious stimuli, e.g., infectious agents, irritants, damaged tissues, etc., if left uncontrolled, it quickly becomes damaging, and this is a contributing factor to the pathogenesis of a plethora of chronic inflammatory diseases (Chen et al., 2018Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, Li Y, Wang X, Zhao L. 2018. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget 9 (6), 7204-7218. https://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208.). During the inflammatory response, immune cells are typically activated and they, in turn, secrete cytokines that initiate inflammatory pathways. These pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) facilitate inflammation via interaction with the receptors of TNF (TNFR), IL-1 (IL-1R), IL-6 (IL-6R), as well as the Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Following activation, the receptor initiates intracellular signalling cascades, such as the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), activator of transcription (STAT), and Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer cascades (Zhang et al., 2019Zhang L, Virgous C, Si H. 2019. Synergistic anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of combined phytochemicals. J. Nutr. Biochem. 69, 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.03.009. ). These cascades play major roles in the development of many leading causes of death, like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, etc. (WHO, 2020WHO. World Health Organization. 2020. The Top 10 Causes of Death. Available: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death.).

The suppression of inflammatory mediators by HCSO, in a dose-dependent manner, clearly evinces its anti-inflammatory properties. It remains to be seen if these properties will prove beneficial in different models of disease conditions. Previous studies have characterized different parts of H. crepitans and enumerated various inherent phytochemical constituents, such as the nitrogen-containing alkaloids, aromatic ring-containing phenolics, and isoprene-containing terpenoids (Oyekunle and Omode, 2008Oyekunle JAO and Omode AA. 2008. Chemical composition and fatty acid profile of the lipid fractions of selected Nigerian indigenous oilseeds. Int. J. Food Prop. 11 (2), 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942910701302598.; Oyeleke et al., 2012Oyeleke GO, Olayiwola OA, Latona DF. 2012. Chemical Examination Of Sandbox (Hura Crepitans) Seed: Proximate, Elemental And Fatty Acid Profile. Magnesium 112, 0-1. https://doi.org/10.9790/5736-0121013 ; Adindu et al., 2015Adindu EA, Elekwa I and Ogwo JI. 2015. Phytochemical comparative screening of aqueous extracts of the leaves, stem barks, and roots of Hura crepitans (L) using GC-FID. Nat. Sc. 13 (12), 112-119. http://www.dx.doi.org/10.7537/marsnsj131215.15.). These phytochemicals have been reported to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Chen et al., 2018Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, Li Y, Wang X, Zhao L. 2018. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget 9 (6), 7204-7218. https://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208.; Zhu et al., 2018Zhu F, Du B and Xu B. 2018. Anti-inflammatory effects of phytochemicals from fruits, vegetables, and food legumes: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 58 (8), 1260-1270. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1251390.) and may account for the observed effects of HCSO on organ function and inflammatory markers, and even contribute to the lower saponification, peroxide, and acid values obtained for HCSO.

CONCLUSIONS

 

Our results demonstrate that HCSO did not significantly affect the function of major organs, nor did it provoke adverse inflammatory responses. Instead, it suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators. Having characterized some of the biochemical effects of HCSO, further research may investigate its potential beneficial effects on various disease states, particularly those involving inflammation.

REFERENCES

 

Abdulkadir MN, Amoo IA and Adesina AO. 2013. Chemical composition of Hura crepitans seeds and antimicrobial activities of its oil. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2 (3), 440-445. https://www.ijsr.net/search_index_results_paperid.php?id=IJSRON2013625

Adewuyi A, Awolade PO and Oderinde RA. 2014. Hura crepitans seed oil: an alternative feedstock for biodiesel production. J. Fuels, 2014, 464590. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/464590.

Adindu EA, Elekwa I and Ogwo JI. 2015. Phytochemical comparative screening of aqueous extracts of the leaves, stem barks, and roots of Hura crepitans (L) using GC-FID. Nat. Sc. 13 (12), 112-119. http://www.dx.doi.org/10.7537/marsnsj131215.15.

Akhtar S, Khalid N, Ahmed I, Shahzad A and Suleria HAR. 2014. Physicochemical characteristics, functional properties, and nutritional benefits of peanut oil: a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 54 (12), 1562-1575. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.644353.

Anyasor GN, Ogunwenmo KO, Oyelana OA, Ajayi D and Dangana J. 2009. Chemical analyses of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) oil. Pak. J. Nutr. 8 (3), 269-272. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2009.269.272.

Arya SS, Salve AR and Chauhan S. 2016. Peanuts as functional food: a review. J. Food Sci. Tech. 53 (1), 31-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-2007-9.

Avoseh ON, Ogunbajo LO, Ogunwande IA, Ogundajo AL and Lawal OA. 2018. Anti-inflammatory activity of hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of Hura crepitans L. Eur J Med Plants 24, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2018/41439.

Brühl, L. 1997. Official methods and recommended practices of the American oil chemist’s society, physical and chemical characteristics of oils, fats and waxes, section I. Ed. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 99 (5), 197-197. https://doi.org/10.1002/lipi.19970990510

Burns CM, Wortmann RL. 2011. Gout therapeutics: new drugs for an old disease. Lancet 377 (9760), 165-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60665-4.

Byass P. 2014. The global burden of liver disease: a challenge for methods and for public health. BMC Med. 12 (1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0159-5.

Cheesbrough M. 2006. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511543470.

Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, Li Y, Wang X, Zhao L. 2018. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget 9 (6), 7204-7218. https://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208.

David OM, Ojo OO, Olumekun VO and Famurewa O. 2014. Antimicrobial activities of essential oils from Hura crepitans (L.), Monodora myristica (Gaertn Dunal) and Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal A. Rich) seeds. Brit. J. Appl. Sci. Tech. 4 (23), 3332-3341. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2014/5088.

Esonu BO, Ozeudu E, Emenalom OO, Nnaji C and Onyeikegbulem IK. 2014. Nutritional value of sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed meal for broiler finisher birds. J. Nat. Sci. Res. 4 (23), 95-99. http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JNSR/article/view/18523/18794

Ezeh IE, Umoren SA, Essien, EE and Udoh AP. 2012. Studies on the utilization of Hura crepitans L. seed oil in the preparation of alkyd resins. Ind. Crops Prod. 36 (1), 94-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.08.013.

Fowomola MA, Akindahunsi AA. 2007. Nutritional quality of sandbox tree (Hura crepitans Linn.). J. Med. Food 10 (1), 159-164. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2005.062.

Gaze DC. 2012. The Cardiovascular System: Physiology, Diagnostics and Clinical Implications. BoD-Books on Demand, Norderstedt, Germany. https://doi.org/10.5772/2266.

Gheshlaghi F. 2012. Toxic renal injury at a glance. J. Renal Inj. Prev. 1 (1), 15-16. https://doi.org/10.12861/jrip.2012.07.

Gordon MH. 2004. Factors affecting lipid oxidation, in Steele R (Ed.) Understanding and Measuring the Shelf-Life of Food, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp.128-141. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781855739024.1.128.

Gunstone F. 2009. Oils and Fats in the Food Industry, vol. 6. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, New Jersey. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444302424.

Hao W, Zhu H, Chen J, Kwek E, He Z, Liu J, Ma N, Ma KY, Chen ZY. 2020. Wild melon seed oil reduces plasma cholesterol and modulates gut microbiota in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 68 (7), 2071-2081. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07302

Higgins C. 2016. Urea and the clinical value of measuring blood urea concentration. Acutecaretesting Org. 1-6. https://acutecaretesting.org/en/articles/urea-and-the-clinical-value-of-measuring-blood-urea-concentration.

Hu EC, He JG, Liu ZH, Ni XH, Zheng YG, Gu Q, Zhao ZH, Xiong CM. 2015. High levels of serum lactate dehydrogenase correlate with the severity and mortality of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Exp. Ther. Med. 9 (6), 2109-2113. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2376.

Igwenyi IO, Agu EA, Awoke JN, Edwin N, Famurewa AC, Obasi NA, Obasi DC. 2017. Antidiabetic and hepatoprotective effect of Hura crepitans seed extract in alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats. Int. J. Biol. Pharm. Allied Sci. 6 (9), 1771-1780. https://ijbpas.com/pdf/2017/September/1504287339MS%20IJBPAS%202017%204257.pdf.

Kardash E and Tur’yan YI. 2005. Acid value determination in vegetable oils by indirect titration in aqueous-alcohol media. Croatica Chem. Acta. 78 (1), 99-103 https://hrcak.srce.hr/2797.

Kanwal A, Abida L, Sana A, Ahlam S. 2018. A systematic review on the prevalence, pathophysiology, diagnosis, management and treatment of gout (2007-2018). GSC Biol. Pharm. Sci. 5 (1), 50-55. https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2018.5.1.0077.

Lei L, Chen J, Liu Y, Wang L, Zhao G and Chen ZY. 2018. Dietary wheat bran oil is equally as effective as rice bran oil in reducing plasma cholesterol. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 66, 2765−2774. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b06093.

Moghadam-Kia S, Oddis CV and Aggarwal R. 2016. Approach to asymptomatic creatine kinase elevation. Clev. Clin. J. Med. 83 (1), 37-42. https://dx.doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.83a.14120.

Percie du Sert N, Ahluwalia A, Alam S, Avey MT, Baker M, Browne WJ, Clark A, Cuthill IC, Dirnagl U, Emerson M, Garner P. 2020. Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. PLoS Biol. 18 (7), e3000411. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000411.

Niemelä O and Alatalo P. 2010. Biomarkers of alcohol consumption and related liver disease. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Inv 70 (5), 305-312. https://doi.org/10.3109/00365513.2010.486442.

Oniya OO, Oyelade JO, Ogunkunle O, Idowu DO. 2017. Optimization of solvent extraction of oil from sandbox kernels (Hura crepitans L.) by a response surface method. Energy and Policy Res. 4 (1), 36-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/23815639.2017.1324332.

Owojuyigbe OS, Firempong CK, Larbie C, Komlaga G and Emikpe BO. 2020. Hepatoprotective potential of Hura crepitans L.: a review of ethnomedical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies. J. Complement. Altern. Med. Res. 9 (2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/jocamr/2020/v9i230136.

Oyekunle JAO and Omode AA. 2008. Chemical composition and fatty acid profile of the lipid fractions of selected Nigerian indigenous oilseeds. Int. J. Food Prop. 11 (2), 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942910701302598.

Pachuau L, Devi CM, Goswami A, Sahu S, Dutta RS. 2019. Seed oils as a source of natural bio-active compounds, in: Akhtar M, Swamy M, Sinniah U (Eds.) Natural Bio-active Compounds, Springer, Singapore, pp. 209-235. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7154-7_8

Rotimi OA, Rotimi SO, Duru CU, Ebebeinwe OJ, Abiodun AO, Oyeniyi BO, Faduyile FA. 2017. Acute aflatoxin B1-Induced hepatotoxicity alters gene expression and disrupts lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in rats. Toxicol. Rep. 4, 408-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.07.006.

Shaterzadeh-Yazdi H, Noorbakhsh MF, Samarghandian S and Farkhondeh T. 2018. An overview on renoprotective effects of thymoquinone. Kidney Dis. 4 (2), 74-82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000486829.

Oyeleke GO, Olayiwola OA, Latona DF. 2012. Chemical Examination Of Sandbox (Hura Crepitans) Seed: Proximate, Elemental And Fatty Acid Profile. Magnesium 112, 0-1. https://doi.org/10.9790/5736-0121013

WHO. World Health Organization. 2020. The Top 10 Causes of Death. Available: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death.

Zhang L, Virgous C, Si H. 2019. Synergistic anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of combined phytochemicals. J. Nutr. Biochem. 69, 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.03.009.

Zhu F, Du B and Xu B. 2018. Anti-inflammatory effects of phytochemicals from fruits, vegetables, and food legumes: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 58 (8), 1260-1270. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1251390.