1. INTRODUCTION
⌅Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the family Lamiaceae and to the genus species Salvia, and is native to Mexico and parts of South America. Chia seeds are 2 mm long and are notable due to their high nutritional and functional value (Coelho and Salas-Mellado, 2014Coelho MS, Salas-Mellado M de LM. 2014. Revisão: Composição química, propriedades funcionais e aplicações tecnológicas da semente de chia (Salvia hispanica L) em alimentos. Braz. J. Food Technol. 17, 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.1814; Fonte-Faria et al., 2019Fonte-Faria T, Citelli M, Atella GC, Raposo HF, Zago L, de Souza T, da Silva SV, Barja-Fidalgo C. 2019. Chia oil supplementation changes body composition and activates insulin signaling cascade in skeletal muscle tissue of obese animals. Nutrition 58, 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.08.011). In recent years, the importance of chia seeds concerning human health and nutrition has increased because of their high α-linolenic fatty acid content and the beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acid consumption on human health (Ayerza, 2011Ayerza R. 2011. The seed’s oil content and fatty acid composition of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) var. Iztac 1, grown under six tropical ecosystems conditions. Interciencia 36, 620–624.).
Chia seeds contain 25-38% oil by weight, with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) being the main fatty acid type, particularly omega-3 fatty acids. The seeds are also an important source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals (including iron and calcium), and bioactive compounds (such as tocopherols and phenolic compounds), increasing their potential beneficial effects on human health (Fernández-López, 2018Fernández-López J, Lucas-González R, Viuda-Martos M, Sayas-Barberá E, Pérez-Alvarez JA. 2018. Chia Oil Extraction Coproduct as a Potential New Ingredient for the Food Industry: Chemical, Physicochemical, Techno-Functional and Antioxidant properties. Plant Foods Human Nutrit. 73, 130–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-018-0670-5.; Ayerza, 2011Ayerza R. 2011. The seed’s oil content and fatty acid composition of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) var. Iztac 1, grown under six tropical ecosystems conditions. Interciencia 36, 620–624.).
The Western diet, characterized by the excessive intake of saturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated omega-6 (n-6 PUFA) and trans fatty acids with decreased intake of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), increases the n-6:n-3 ratio (range, 10:1 to 20:1) and may play a role in the pathogenesis of obesity and other related diseases (Simopoulos, 2016Simopoulos AP. 2016. An increase in the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio increases the risk for obesity. Nutrients 8, 128. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8030128).
The human body can synthesize some fatty acids, but not linoleic acid (LA; n-6) or α-linolenic acid (ALA; n-3), which must be consumed in the diet. α-linolenic acid is a precursor to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA - C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA - C22:6n-3) in the human body (Albracht-Schulte et al., 2018Albracht-Schulte K, Kalupahana NS, Ramalingam L, Wang S, Rahman SM, Robert-McComb J, Moustaid-Moussa N. 2018. Omega-3 fatty acids in obesity and metabolic syndrome: a mechanistic update. J. Nutr. Biochem. 58, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.02.012). Both the consumption of ALA and the activity of the enzyme fatty acid desaturase determine the plasma levels of n-3 PUFA (Vessby, 2003Vessby B. 2003. Dietary fat, fatty acid composition in plasma and the metabolic syndrome. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 14, 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1097/00041433-200302000-00004).
The 3 largest n-3 PUFAs, α-linolenic acid (ALA; C18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; C20:5n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6n-3), can produce distinctly different responses on the risk factors for metabolic syndrome (Poudyal et al., 2011Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Diwan V, Brown L. 2011. Omega-3 fatty acids and metabolic syndrome: effects and emerging mechanisms of action. Prog. Lipid Res. 50, 372–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2011.06.003).
EPA and marine DHA are not as widely available as plant-derived ALA because of the cost and limited supply of seafood compared to plant foods. The effect of ALA on endothelial function is therefore of considerable importance, particularly for populations with low fish intake or availability (Sierra et al., 2015Sierra L, Roco J, Alarcon G, Medina M, Van Nieuwenhove C, de Bruno MP, Jerez S. 2015. Dietary intervention with Salvia hispanica (Chia) oil improves vascular function in rabbits under hypercholesterolaemic conditions. J. Funct. Foods 14, 641–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.02.042).
Sierra et al. (2015)Sierra L, Roco J, Alarcon G, Medina M, Van Nieuwenhove C, de Bruno MP, Jerez S. 2015. Dietary intervention with Salvia hispanica (Chia) oil improves vascular function in rabbits under hypercholesterolaemic conditions. J. Funct. Foods 14, 641–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.02.042 demonstrated that dietary supplementation with chia oil can improve vascular dysfunction under hypercholesterolemic conditions. However, little evidence has been found on the beneficial effects of oils derived from plants which are rich in omega-3.
Thus, chia is a promising food for society and the scientific community because it contains fatty acids, antioxidants, and bioactive compounds which prevent or modify metabolic disorders resulting from chronic diseases.
The objective of this study was to investigate the metabolic effects of chia oil in experimental models which have already been described in the literature.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
⌅2.1. Literature research, study selection, and data extraction
⌅This study is a narrative review that sought studies on supplementing chia oil in experimental models of metabolic disturbances, throughout the period of 2010 to 2024. The Capes, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were used for this end. The keywords used were “chia oil” AND “supplementation”, “chia oil and supplementation” NOT “seed”, “salvia hispanica”, “salvia hispanica” OR “supplementation” OR “oil”. Articles which used only chia seed or flour, studies with humans, studies related to food technology, and review articles were excluded. At the end of the search and exclusion of those studies that did not fit the purpose of this review, 22 articles were selected.
3. RESULTS
⌅3.1. Chia oil
⌅Chia essential oil has significantly higher contents of α-linolenic (55-66%) and linoleic acids (16-22%) than linseed, canola and soybean oils (Ayerza, 2011Ayerza R. 2011. The seed’s oil content and fatty acid composition of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) var. Iztac 1, grown under six tropical ecosystems conditions. Interciencia 36, 620–624.). PUFAs have been associated with an improved lipid profile, the attenuation of cardiometabolic risk, and decreased inflammation (Lesna et al., 2013Lesna IK, Suchanek P, Brabcova E, Kovar J, Malinska H, Poledne R. 2013. Effect of different types of dietary fatty acids on subclinical inflammation in humans. Physiol. Res. 62, 145–152. https://doi.org/10.33549/physiolres.932439).
Studies have shown that chia seed and oil can be rich sources of bioactive compounds because of their high polyphenolic compound contents, such as chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin and kaempferol, and lipolytic compound contents, such as tocopherols, phytosterols, carotenoids and phospholipids (Martínez-Cruz and Paredes-López, 2014Martínez-Cruz O, Paredes-López O. 2014. Phytochemical profile and nutraceutical potential of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) by ultra high performance liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 1346, 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2014.04.007).
Obesity impairs the antioxidant enzymatic system, with reduced catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GRd) activities, and affects the nonenzymatic antioxidant system (reduced thiol, minerals, vitamins, and polyphenols) which play an essential role in many antioxidant mechanisms (Brambilla et al., 2008Brambilla D, Mancuso C, Scuderi MR, Bosco P, Cantarella G, Lempereur L, Di Benedetto G, Pezzino S, Bernardini R. 2008. The role of antioxidant supplement in immune system, neoplastic, and neurodegenerative disorders: a point of view for an assessment of the risk / benefit profile. Nutrit. J. 9, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-7-29; Fernández-Sánchez et al., 2011Fernández-Sánchez A, Madrigal-Santillán E, Bautista M, Esquivel-Soto J, Morales-González Á, Esquivel-Chirino C, Durante-Montiel I, Sánchez-Rivera G, Valadez-Vega C, Morales-González JA. 2011. Inflammation, oxidative stress, and obesity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 12, 3117–3132. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms12053117). Several studies have shown that the consumption of natural dietary sources (fruits, nuts, and vegetables) with bioactive antioxidant compounds (polyphenols, tocopherols, carotenoids, vitamins) can help prevent oxidative stress and can be a natural alternative for chronic disease prevention and control (Avignon et al., 2012Avignon A, Hokayem M, Bisbal C, Lambert K. 2012. Dietary antioxidants: Do they have a role to play in the ongoing fight against abnormal glucose metabolism? Nutrition 28, 715–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2012.01.001; Bulló et al., 2011Bulló M, Lamuela-Raventós R, Salas-Salvadó J. 2011. Mediterranean Diet and Oxidation: Nuts and Olive Oil as Important Sources of Fat and Antioxidants. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 11, 1797–1810. https://doi.org/10.2174/156802611796235062; Landete, 2012Landete JM. 2012. Updated Knowledge about Polyphenols: Functions, Bioavailability, Metabolism, and Health. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 52, 936–948. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.513779).
3.2. Chia oil and blood lipid profile
⌅Studies with rodents have shown that the ingestion of chia oil can reduce serum cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglycerides, increase liver levels of ALA, EPA, and DHA, and decrease the n-6/n-3 ratio (Ayerza and Coates, 2007Ayerza R, Coates W. 2007. Effect of dietary α-linolenic fatty acid derived from chia when fed as ground seed, whole seed and oil on lipid content and fatty acid composition of rat plasma. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 51, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1159/000100818; Valenzuela et al., 2012Valenzuela R, Gormáz JG, Masson L, Vizcarra M, Cornejo P. 2012. Evaluation of the hepatic bioconversion of α-linolenic acid (ALA) to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in rats fed with oils from chia (Salvia hispánica) or rosa mosqueta (Rosa rubiginosa). Grasas Aceites 63, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.057111; Han et al., 2020Han K, Li XY, Zhang YQ, He YL, Hu R, Lu XL, Li QJ, Hui J. 2020. Chia Seed Oil Prevents High Fat Diet Induced Hyperlipidemia and Oxidative Stress in Mice. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.122, 1900443. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201900443). Another study has also shown decreased blood glucose, triglycerides, and body weight in Wistar rats fed with a high-fat and high-fructose diet after treatment with Salvia hispanica (Moreira et al., 2022Moreira L de PD, Enes BN, Parzanini Brilhante de São José V, Lopes Toledo R C, Maia Ladeira LC, Rezende Cardoso R, da Silva Duarte V, Hermana Miranda Hermsdorff H, Ribeiro de Barros FA, Stampini Duarte Martino H. 2022. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Flour and Oil Ameliorate Metabolic Disorders in the Liver of Rats Fed a High-Fat and High Fructose Diet. Foods 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030285; Batista et al., 2023Batista A, Quitete FT, Peixoto TC, Almo A, Monteiro EB, Trindade P, Zago L, Citelli M, Daleprane JB. 2023. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil supplementation ameliorates liver oxidative stress in high-fat diet-fed mice through PPAR-γ and Nrf2 upregulation. J. Funct. Foods 102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2023.105462).
Capobianco et al. (2018)Capobianco E, Fornes D, Roberti SL, Powell TL, Jansson T, Jawerbaum A. 2018. Supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnant rats with mild diabetes normalizes placental PPAR-γ and mTOR signaling in female offspring developing gestational diabetes. J. Nutrit. Biochem. 53, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.10.006 reported that pregnant rats with gestational diabetes supplemented with chia oil exhibited a lower increase in cholesterol than did the group that did not receive supplementation. The fetuses of these animals had lower glycemic and triglyceride indices and lower lipid peroxidation. Fonte-Faria et al. (2019)Fonte-Faria T, Citelli M, Atella GC, Raposo HF, Zago L, de Souza T, da Silva SV, Barja-Fidalgo C. 2019. Chia oil supplementation changes body composition and activates insulin signaling cascade in skeletal muscle tissue of obese animals. Nutrition 58, 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.08.011 also observed better glucose and insulin tolerance, with decreased serum levels of fasting insulin in groups of rats supplemented with chia oil.
EPA and DHA are associated with beneficial changes in lipid metabolism, altering serum cholesterol concentrations, reducing triglyceride and LDL-c levels, and increasing plasma HDL-c levels (da Silva et al., 2019da Silva BP, Toledo RC, Mishima MD, de Castro Moreira ME, Vasconcelos CM, Pereira CE, Favarato LS, Costa NM, Martino HS. 2019. Effects of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) on oxidative stress and inflammation in ovariectomized adult female Wistar rats. Food Funct. 10, 4036–4045. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9FO00862D).
Poudyal (2012)Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Waanders J, Ward L, Brown L. 2012. Lipid redistribution by α-linolenic acid-rich chia seed inhibits stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 and induces cardiac and hepatic protection in diet-induced obese rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 23, 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2010.11.011 showed that ALA from chia oil does not reduce total body fat but induces lipid redistribution away from the abdominal area, improving glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity and attenuating dyslipidemia and hypertension. In a subsequent study, ALA supplementation from chia oil increased DHA concentrations but induced different physiological responses to EPA and DHA. This result strongly suggests that ALA has independent effects on metabolic syndrome that are not dependent on DHA metabolism. In addition, De Souza et al. (2020)de Souza T, da Silva SV, Fonte-Faria T, Nascimento-Silva V, Barja-Fidalgo C, Citelli M. 2020. Chia oil induces browning of white adipose tissue in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 507, 110772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2020.110772 demonstrated that daily ingestion of chia oil promoted the browning process in subcutaneous adipose tissue, and an increase in the expression of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, as well as an increase in the expression of Uncoupling Protein 1 (UCP-1).
Gallegos et al. (2018)Gallegos SR, Arrunátegui GT, Valenzuela R, Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Espinoza ME. 2018. Adding a purple corn extract in rats supplemented with chia oil decreases gene expression of SREBP-1c and retains Δ5 and Δ6 hepatic desaturase activity, unmodified the hepatic lipid profile. Prostaglandins, Leukot. Essent. Fatt. Acids 132, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2018.03.005 reported that hepatic ALA and n-3 PUFA contents increased the levels of LA and decreased n-6 PUFA. Also, significant rises in the expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha (PPAR-α) gene and the sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP-1c) gene were observed when animals were supplemented with chia oil. In contrast to this finding, another study observed an increased expression and DNA-binding activity of the transcription factor PPAR-α but decreased expression and binding activity of the transcription factor SREBP-1c. This transcription factor up-regulates lipogenesis in the liver along with acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1), concomitant with the down-regulation of genes involving fatty acid oxidation like carnitine palmitoyl-transferase 1a (Cpt1a), adiponectin receptor 2 (Adipor 2), and PPAR-α. Moreira et al. (2022)Moreira L de PD, Enes BN, Parzanini Brilhante de São José V, Lopes Toledo R C, Maia Ladeira LC, Rezende Cardoso R, da Silva Duarte V, Hermana Miranda Hermsdorff H, Ribeiro de Barros FA, Stampini Duarte Martino H. 2022. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Flour and Oil Ameliorate Metabolic Disorders in the Liver of Rats Fed a High-Fat and High Fructose Diet. Foods 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030285 demonstrated that chia oil led to the down-regulation of SREBP-1c genes and up-regulation of Cpt1a and Adipor 2 genes in rats fed with a high-fat and high-fructose diet (Rincón-Cervera et al., 2016Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Valenzuela R, Hernandez-Rodas MC, Barrera C, Espinosa A, Marambio M, Valenzuela A. 2016. Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid increment hepatic n-3 LCPUFA, modulating the fatty acid metabolism and antioxidant response in rats. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 111, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2016.02.002; González-Mañán et al., 2012González-Mañán D, Tapia G, Gormaz JG, D’Espessailles A, Espinosa A, Masson L, Varela P, Valenzuela A, Valenzuela R. 2012. Bioconversion of α-linolenic acid to n-3 LCPUFA and expression of PPAR-alpha, acyl coenzyme A oxidase 1 and carnitine acyl transferase are incremented after feeding rats with α-linolenic acid-rich oils. Food Funct. 3, 765–772. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2fo30012e; Catrysse and Van Loo, 2017Catrysse L, van Loo G. 2017. Inflammation and the Metabolic Syndrome: The Tissue-Specific Functions of NF-κB. Trends Cell Biol. 27, 417–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2017.01.006).
| Article | Chia Oil | Control Oil | Supplementation Time | Study | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ayerza and Coates, 2007Ayerza R, Coates W. 2007. Effect of dietary α-linolenic fatty acid derived from chia when fed as ground seed, whole seed and oil on lipid content and fatty acid composition of rat plasma. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 51, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1159/000100818 | 53.4 g/kg diet 59,3g/ml | Corn oil | 4 weeks | Investigated the influence of n-3 fatty acids on plasma composition. Chia seed, chia flour and chia oil were used. | |
| González-Mañán et al., 2012González-Mañán D, Tapia G, Gormaz JG, D’Espessailles A, Espinosa A, Masson L, Varela P, Valenzuela A, Valenzuela R. 2012. Bioconversion of α-linolenic acid to n-3 LCPUFA and expression of PPAR-alpha, acyl coenzyme A oxidase 1 and carnitine acyl transferase are incremented after feeding rats with α-linolenic acid-rich oils. Food Funct. 3, 765–772. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2fo30012e | 100 g/kg diet (6.3 g of ALA) 10,71 g/mL | Sunflower oil | 3 weeks | Evaluated the hepatic bioconversion of ALA to EPA and DHA, the expression of PPAR-α, ACOX-1 and CAT-1, and the accumulation of EPA and DHA in plasma and adipose tissue in Sprague-Dawley rats. | |
| Poudyal et al., 2013Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Ward LC, Brown L. 2013. Effects of ALA, EPA and DHA in high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 24, 1041–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2012.07.014 | 30 mL/kg diet | EPA and DHA oil | 8 weeks | Compared the cardiovascular, hepatic and metabolic responses to n-3 fatty acids in the diet (ALA; EPA; and DHA). | |
| Sierra et al., 2015Sierra L, Roco J, Alarcon G, Medina M, Van Nieuwenhove C, de Bruno MP, Jerez S. 2015. Dietary intervention with Salvia hispanica (Chia) oil improves vascular function in rabbits under hypercholesterolaemic conditions. J. Funct. Foods 14, 641–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.02.042 | 10% | Cholesterol | 5-6 weeks | Evaluated the effects of dietary supplementation with chia oil on the vascular function of hypercholesterolemic rats. | Protection of vascular function against the deleterious effects of early hypercholesterolemia. |
| Marineli et al., 2015da Silva Marineli R, Lenquiste SA, Moraes ÉA, Maróstica Jr MR. 2015. Antioxidant potential of dietary chia seed and oil (Salvia hispanica L.) in diet-induced obese rats. Food Res. Int. 76, 666–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2015.07.039 | 40 g/kg diet 4,28 g/mL | Soybean oil | 6 or 12 weeks | Investigated the effect of chia seeds and oil on the plasma and oxidative status of the liver in rats with diet-induced obesity. | |
| Rincón-Cervera et al., 2016Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Valenzuela R, Hernandez-Rodas MC, Barrera C, Espinosa A, Marambio M, Valenzuela A. 2016. Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid increment hepatic n-3 LCPUFA, modulating the fatty acid metabolism and antioxidant response in rats. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 111, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2016.02.002 | 100 g/kg diet (6.3 g of ALA) 10,71 g/mL | Sunflower oil | 3 weeks | Evaluated the hepatic and epididymal uptake and the biosynthesis of long-chain n-3 PUFAs, the activity and expression of Δ-5 and Δ-6 desaturases, the expression and activity of PPAR-α and SREBP-1c DNA binding, parameters of oxidative stress and activity of antioxidant enzymes in rats fed sunflower oil (control, 1% ALA); canola oil (10% ALA); rosehip oil (30% ALA), sacha inchi oil (49% ALA) and chia oil (64% ALA), as the only lipid source. |
|
| Capobianco et al., 2018Capobianco E, Fornes D, Roberti SL, Powell TL, Jansson T, Jawerbaum A. 2018. Supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnant rats with mild diabetes normalizes placental PPAR-γ and mTOR signaling in female offspring developing gestational diabetes. J. Nutrit. Biochem. 53, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.10.006 | 11 g/100 g diet 1,18 g/mL | Safflower oil | 1 week | Studied the effects of PUFA supplementation in rats with gestational diabetes (F0) fed a diet enriched with 6% safflower oil from day 1 to 14, followed by a diet enriched with 6% chia oil from day 14 of gestation to term (21 days). | |
| Gallegos et al., 2018Gallegos SR, Arrunátegui GT, Valenzuela R, Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Espinoza ME. 2018. Adding a purple corn extract in rats supplemented with chia oil decreases gene expression of SREBP-1c and retains Δ5 and Δ6 hepatic desaturase activity, unmodified the hepatic lipid profile. Prostaglandins, Leukot. Essent. Fatt. Acids 132, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2018.03.005 | 4.71% of ALA | Soybean oil | ~ 14 weeks (it is not clear in the article) | Evaluated the effect of oral supplementation of ALA from chia oil and anthocyanins from a purple corn extract (PCE) on SREBP-1c, PPAR-α, and Δ5 and Δ6 desaturase gene expression in the liver and liver lipid profile, in 36 female Sprague-Dawley rats. | . |
| Valenzuela et al., 2012Valenzuela R, Gormáz JG, Masson L, Vizcarra M, Cornejo P. 2012. Evaluation of the hepatic bioconversion of α-linolenic acid (ALA) to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in rats fed with oils from chia (Salvia hispánica) or rosa mosqueta (Rosa rubiginosa). Grasas Aceites 63, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.057111 | 9,6 g/mL | Sunflower oil | 3 weeks | Evaluated the hepatic bioconversion of ALA into EPA and DHA and liver damage (histology and transaminase) in Sprague-Dawley rats fed different vegetable oils. | |
| Syeda et al., 2018Syeda T, Sanchez-Tapia M, Pinedo-Vargas L, Granados O, Cuervo-Zanatta D, Rojas-Santiago E, Díaz-Cintra SA, Torres N, Perez-Cruz C. 2018. Bioactive food abates metabolic and synaptic alterations by modulation of gut Microbiota in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 66, 1657–1682. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180556 | 90 g/kg diet 9,64g/mL | Soybean oil | 28 weeks | Explored whether inclusion of bioactive food in the diet may impact central pathological markers of Alzheimer’s disease by modulation of the gut microbiota. |
|
| Fonte-Faria et al., 2019Fonte-Faria T, Citelli M, Atella GC, Raposo HF, Zago L, de Souza T, da Silva SV, Barja-Fidalgo C. 2019. Chia oil supplementation changes body composition and activates insulin signaling cascade in skeletal muscle tissue of obese animals. Nutrition 58, 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.08.011 | 15 g/kg of diet 1,61 g/mL | Soybean oil | 11 weeks | Evaluated the effect of chia oil supplementation on body composition and insulin signaling in the skeletal muscle of obese rats. | |
| De Souza et al., 2020de Souza T, da Silva SV, Fonte-Faria T, Nascimento-Silva V, Barja-Fidalgo C, Citelli M. 2020. Chia oil induces browning of white adipose tissue in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 507, 110772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2020.110772 | 15 g/kg of diet 1,61 g/mL | Soybean oil | 10 weeks or 27 weeks | Evaluated whether chia oil supplementation would promote browning of adipose tissue and improve glucose metabolism in animals subject to an obesogenic diet. | Animals supplemented with chia oil since weaning (21-130 days) showed an improvement in glucose metabolism, browning of subcutaneous adipose tissue. |
| Han et al., 2020Han K, Li XY, Zhang YQ, He YL, Hu R, Lu XL, Li QJ, Hui J. 2020. Chia Seed Oil Prevents High Fat Diet Induced Hyperlipidemia and Oxidative Stress in Mice. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.122, 1900443. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201900443 | Three doses: low (1,05 g/mL kg-¹ b.w.) medium (2,11 g/mL kg-¹ b.w.); high (4,22 g/mL kg-¹ b.w.) | Lard | 5 weeks | Evaluated the effects of chia oil on hyperlipidemia induced by high fat diet and oxidative stress in mice. |
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| Alarcon et al., 2020Alarcon G, Medina A, Alzogaray FM, Sierra L, Roco J, Van Nieuwenhove C, Medina M, Jerez S. 2020. Partial replacement of corn oil with chia oil into a high fat diet produces either beneficial and deleterious effects on metabolic and vascular alterations in rabbits. Pharma Nutr. 14, 100218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phanu.2020.100218 | 3% | 8% lard or 10% corn oil | 6 weeks | Evaluated the isocaloric partial replacement of corn oil with chia oil into a high-fat diet on metabolic parameters and vascular alterations in a model of metabolic syndrome. | |
| Ahmed et al., 2021Ahmed AZ, Mumbrekar KD, Satyam SM, Shetty P, D’Souza MR, Singh VK. 2021. Chia Seed Oil Ameliorates Doxorubicin ‑ Induced Cardiotoxicity in Female Wistar Rats: An Electrocardiographic, Biochemical and Histopathological Approach. Cardiovasc. Toxicol. 21, 533–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12012-021-09644-3 | 2,25 g/mL and 4,5 g/mL | None | 1 week | Investigated the cardioprotective potential of chia oil against doxorubicin-induced (DOX) cardiotoxicity in Wistar rats. | |
| Moreira et al., 2022Moreira L de PD, Enes BN, Parzanini Brilhante de São José V, Lopes Toledo R C, Maia Ladeira LC, Rezende Cardoso R, da Silva Duarte V, Hermana Miranda Hermsdorff H, Ribeiro de Barros FA, Stampini Duarte Martino H. 2022. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Flour and Oil Ameliorate Metabolic Disorders in the Liver of Rats Fed a High-Fat and High Fructose Diet. Foods 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030285 | 40 g/kg diet 4,28 g/mL | Soybean oil | 10 weeks | Investigated whether chia oil and flour improves metabolic disorders in the liver of Wistar rats fed a high-fat and high-fructose diet. | |
| Syeda et al., 2022Syeda T, Sánchez-Tapia M, Orta I, Granados-Portillo O, Pérez-Jimenez L, Rodríguez-Callejas JD, Toribio S, Silva-Lucero MD, Rivera AL, Tovar AR, Torres N. 2021. Bioactive foods decrease liver and brain alterations induced by a high-fat-sucrose diet through restoration of gut Microbiota and antioxidant enzymes. Nutrients 14, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010022 | 3% | Soybean oil | 12 weeks | Investigated whether a combination of functional foods could reverse cognitive damage and to what extent it would be associated with changes in gut microbiota and liver. |
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| Batista et al., 2023Batista A, Quitete FT, Peixoto TC, Almo A, Monteiro EB, Trindade P, Zago L, Citelli M, Daleprane JB. 2023. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil supplementation ameliorates liver oxidative stress in high-fat diet-fed mice through PPAR-γ and Nrf2 upregulation. J. Funct. Foods 102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2023.105462 | 15 g/kg 1,61 g/mL | Soybean oil | 33 weeks | Evaluated the hepatic antioxidant activity of a high-fat diet supplemented with chia oil in mice. |
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| Alarcon et al., 2023Alarcon G, Sierra L, Roco J, Van Nieuwenhove C, Medina A, Medina M, Jerez S. 2023. Effects of cold pressed Chia seed oil intake on hematological and biochemical biomarkers in both normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 78, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-022-01036-4 | 11,11g/mL (ALA 5,8-11,6g/day) | Cholesterol | 5-6 weeks | Investigated the effects of cold-pressed chia seed oil supplementation on certain hematological and biochemical biomarkers in both normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits. |
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| Dalginli et al., 2023Dalginli KY, Kilicle PA, Atakisi O, Ozturkler M, Uluman E. 2023. Antidiabetic potential of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Seed Oil in streptozotocininduced diabetic rat. J. Hell. Vet. Med. Soc. 74, 5165–5176. https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.27972 | 1g/kg 0,1g/mL | None | 2 weeks | Investigated the hypoglycemic antioxidative/nitrosative, oxidative DNA damage and adenosine deaminase effects of chia seed oil on streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetes in rats. | |
| El Makawy et al., 2024El Makawy AI, Abdel-Aziem SH, Mohammed SE, Ibrahim FM, Abd EL-Kader HA, Sharaf HA, Youssef DA, Mabrouk DM. 2024. Exploration of tumor growth regression of quinoa and chia oil nanocapsules via the control of PIK3CA and MYC expression, anti-inflammation and cell proliferation inhibition, and their hepatorenal safety in rat breast cancer model. Bull. Natl. Res. Cent. 48, 7. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.202200170 | 100 and 200 mg/kg b.w. | Corn oil | 4 weeks | Assessed the repressive effect of chia and quinoa seeds oil nanocapsules against mammary tumors in rats. Rat models of chemically-induced mammary tumors were gavaged with chia and quinoa nanocapsules for one month. |
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| Amin et al., 2024 | 3%, 5%, and 7% | None | 6 weeks | Explored the therapeutic effect of chia seed oil (CSO) based ice cream against coronary heart disease (CHD). CSO-based ice cream was developed by using different concentrations of CSO (G23%, G35%, and G47%). |
HDL-c: high-density lipoprotein; ALA: α-linolenic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; SREBP-1c: sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1; ACOX-1: peroxisomal acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1; CAT-1: carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1; GSH: glutathione; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; PPAR-α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha; MDA: malondialdehyde; CPT-1: carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1a; Adipor2: adiponectin receptor 2; SREBF1: sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1; PIK3CA: phosphatidylinositol-4, 5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha.
PUFAs, especially those in the n-3 family, can activate PPAR-α. PPAR-α increases β-oxidation by regulating genes that encode several key enzymes involved in the process and decreases the gene expression of ACC and fatty acid synthase (FAS), the target genes of SREBP-1c, thus resulting in the inhibition of lipogenesis. PPAR-γ is related to the control of glucose metabolism and, therefore, to improvements in insulin sensitivity (Calder, 2012Calder PC. 2012. Mechanisms of action of (n-3) fatty acids. J. Nutrit. 142, 592S–599S. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.155259; Gallegos et al., 2018Gallegos SR, Arrunátegui GT, Valenzuela R, Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Espinoza ME. 2018. Adding a purple corn extract in rats supplemented with chia oil decreases gene expression of SREBP-1c and retains Δ5 and Δ6 hepatic desaturase activity, unmodified the hepatic lipid profile. Prostaglandins, Leukot. Essent. Fatt. Acids 132, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2018.03.005).
3.3. Chia oil and inflammatory markers
⌅Obesity is a chronic disease that can be characterized as an excess accumulation of body fat (Furukawa et al., 2017Furukawa S, Fujita T, Shimabukuro M, Iwaki M, Yamada Y, Nakajima Y, Nakayama O, Makishima M, Matsuda M, Shimomura I. 2017. Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 114, 1752–1761. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI21625). The prevalence of obesity has increased considerably in recent years, affecting 25.9% of the Brazilian adult population (IBGE, 2020IBGE. 2021. Pesquisa nacional de saúde: 2019: percepção do estado de saúde, estilos de vida, doenças crônicas e saúde bucal: Brasil e grandes regiões / IBGE, Coordenação de Trabalho e Rendimento, [Ministério da Saúde], INTERNET, Rio de Janeiro.). The consumption of a high-fat diet and high consumption of fructose is correlated with inflammation, resulting in adipocyte hypertrophy and subsequent infiltration of macrophages and resulting in the activation of specific signaling pathways (Catrysse and Van Loo 2017Catrysse L, van Loo G. 2017. Inflammation and the Metabolic Syndrome: The Tissue-Specific Functions of NF-κB. Trends Cell Biol. 27, 417–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2017.01.006; Moreira et al., 2022Moreira L de PD, Enes BN, Parzanini Brilhante de São José V, Lopes Toledo R C, Maia Ladeira LC, Rezende Cardoso R, da Silva Duarte V, Hermana Miranda Hermsdorff H, Ribeiro de Barros FA, Stampini Duarte Martino H. 2022. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Flour and Oil Ameliorate Metabolic Disorders in the Liver of Rats Fed a High-Fat and High Fructose Diet. Foods 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030285).
These pathways lead to the production of inflammatory substances, including nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) (Morettini et al., 2015Morettini M, Storm F, Sacchetti M, Cappozzo A, Mazzà C. 2015. Effects of walking on low-grade inflammation and their implications for Type 2 Diabetes. Prev. Med. Reports 2, 538–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2015.06.012). Thus, the consumption of a high-fat diet contributes to the activation of inflammatory pathways, the dysregulation of lipid metabolism, changes in protein expression, and increased oxidative stress (Silva et al., 2019da Silva BP, Toledo RC, Mishima MD, de Castro Moreira ME, Vasconcelos CM, Pereira CE, Favarato LS, Costa NM, Martino HS. 2019. Effects of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) on oxidative stress and inflammation in ovariectomized adult female Wistar rats. Food Funct. 10, 4036–4045. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9FO00862D). Oxidative stress suppresses PPAR-γ mRNA expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and inhibits the nuclear translocation of PPAR-γ in combination with nitrates, as demonstrated by Furukawa et al. (2017)Furukawa S, Fujita T, Shimabukuro M, Iwaki M, Yamada Y, Nakajima Y, Nakayama O, Makishima M, Matsuda M, Shimomura I. 2017. Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 114, 1752–1761. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI21625.
Poudyal et al. (2013)Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Ward LC, Brown L. 2013. Effects of ALA, EPA and DHA in high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 24, 1041–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2012.07.014 compared the cardiovascular, hepatic, and metabolic responses to n-3 fatty acids (ALA, EPA, and DHA) and reported that ALA (derived from chia oil), as well as EPA and DHA oil, reduced heart and liver inflammation, cardiac fibrosis and hepatic steatosis. Additionally, for the groups supplemented with oil, all tissues showed complete inhibition of stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1) activity. The increase in SCD-1 expression and activity has been related to cardiovascular diseases, insulin resistance, and obesity (Poudyal et al., 2012Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Waanders J, Ward L, Brown L. 2012. Lipid redistribution by α-linolenic acid-rich chia seed inhibits stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 and induces cardiac and hepatic protection in diet-induced obese rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 23, 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2010.11.011).
Syeda et al. (2022)Syeda T, Sánchez-Tapia M, Orta I, Granados-Portillo O, Pérez-Jimenez L, Rodríguez-Callejas JD, Toribio S, Silva-Lucero MD, Rivera AL, Tovar AR, Torres N. 2021. Bioactive foods decrease liver and brain alterations induced by a high-fat-sucrose diet through restoration of gut Microbiota and antioxidant enzymes. Nutrients 14, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010022 reported an increase in a cluster of bacteria with anti-inflammatory capacity and a reduction in inflammation mediated by the TLR4-TNFα pathway in male Wistar rats fed a high-fat-5% sucrose diet for 4 months, and later fed for 1 month with bioactive foods (dried nopal, soy protein, chia seed oil, and turmeric).
Furthermore, chia oil improves hepatic steatosis and reduces lipid deposition. Also, it was suggested that dietary chia oil may modulate lipid metabolism by regulating PPAR-α and CPT-1a protein expressions in the liver (Han et al., 2020Han K, Li XY, Zhang YQ, He YL, Hu R, Lu XL, Li QJ, Hui J. 2020. Chia Seed Oil Prevents High Fat Diet Induced Hyperlipidemia and Oxidative Stress in Mice. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.122, 1900443. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201900443).
3.4. Chia oil and oxidative stress
⌅Rincón-Cervera et al. (2016)Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Valenzuela R, Hernandez-Rodas MC, Barrera C, Espinosa A, Marambio M, Valenzuela A. 2016. Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid increment hepatic n-3 LCPUFA, modulating the fatty acid metabolism and antioxidant response in rats. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 111, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2016.02.002 studied different sources of ALA (canola, rosehip, sacha inchi, and chia) and reported that the antioxidant status of the liver was modified in groups supplemented with chia oil, showing increased levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) and a highly reduced glutathione/oxidize glutathione (GSH/GSSG) ratio compared to the control (sunflower oil). Reduced glutathione is one of the most relevant nonenzymatic cellular antioxidants, both for its antioxidant role and for being a cofactor of the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzyme.
Higher ALA content, such as that provided by chia oil, was shown to reduce lipid peroxidation, and result in higher activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as those involved in protection against oxidative stress, e.g., superoxide dismutase (SOD), plasma catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and GR (glutathione reductase). The results observed in that study reinforce the concept that ALA improves the protective status of liver oxidative stress (Rincón-Cervera et al., 2016Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Valenzuela R, Hernandez-Rodas MC, Barrera C, Espinosa A, Marambio M, Valenzuela A. 2016. Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid increment hepatic n-3 LCPUFA, modulating the fatty acid metabolism and antioxidant response in rats. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 111, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2016.02.002; Santos-López et al., 2018Santos-López JA, Garcimartín A, Bastida S, Bautista-Ávila M, González-Muñoz MJ, Benedí J, Sánchez-Muniz FJ. 2018. Lipoprotein profile in aged rats fed chia oil-or hydroxytyrosol-enriched pork in high cholesterol/high saturated fat diets. Nutrients 10, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10121830).
Da Silva Marineli et al. (2015)da Silva Marineli R, Lenquiste SA, Moraes ÉA, Maróstica Jr MR. 2015. Antioxidant potential of dietary chia seed and oil (Salvia hispanica L.) in diet-induced obese rats. Food Res. Int. 76, 666–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2015.07.039 induced obesity in rats through a high-fructose and high-fat (HFF) diet supplemented with chia seed and oil and observed increased plasma levels of reduced thiol (GSH) and CAT and GPx activity. There was no change in CAT and GPx activity in the liver; however, improvement in GR activity was observed. The ingestion of chia oil and seeds reduced plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and compared to those in the group that did not receive supplementation, the plasma and liver antioxidant capacity values increased in the chia seed and oil groups by approximately 35 and 47%, respectively, suggesting that both the seed and the oil can act as antioxidants and neutralize the pro-oxidative effects caused by the consumption of an HFF diet.
Batista et al. (2023)Batista A, Quitete FT, Peixoto TC, Almo A, Monteiro EB, Trindade P, Zago L, Citelli M, Daleprane JB. 2023. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil supplementation ameliorates liver oxidative stress in high-fat diet-fed mice through PPAR-γ and Nrf2 upregulation. J. Funct. Foods 102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2023.105462 showed that animals supplemented with chia oil for 45 days showed increased activity of antioxidant enzymes in the liver. The animals fed with a high-fat diet and supplemented with chia oil had reduced plasma F2-isoprostane, a specific marker of oxidative damage, and reduced lipid and protein liver oxidation. Chia oil increased the content of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) in the liver, which is related to the regulation of the antioxidant enzymes SOD, catalase, and GPx in the liver (Han et al., 2020Han K, Li XY, Zhang YQ, He YL, Hu R, Lu XL, Li QJ, Hui J. 2020. Chia Seed Oil Prevents High Fat Diet Induced Hyperlipidemia and Oxidative Stress in Mice. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.122, 1900443. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201900443; Syeda et al., 2022Syeda T, Sánchez-Tapia M, Orta I, Granados-Portillo O, Pérez-Jimenez L, Rodríguez-Callejas JD, Toribio S, Silva-Lucero MD, Rivera AL, Tovar AR, Torres N. 2021. Bioactive foods decrease liver and brain alterations induced by a high-fat-sucrose diet through restoration of gut Microbiota and antioxidant enzymes. Nutrients 14, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010022).
Therefore, these results indicate that chia oil mitigates oxidative damage in the liver resulting from a high-fat diet consumption by activating Nrf2 and PPAR-γ, which can induce the endogenous antioxidant defense system (Batista et al., 2023Batista A, Quitete FT, Peixoto TC, Almo A, Monteiro EB, Trindade P, Zago L, Citelli M, Daleprane JB. 2023. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil supplementation ameliorates liver oxidative stress in high-fat diet-fed mice through PPAR-γ and Nrf2 upregulation. J. Funct. Foods 102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2023.105462). Also, chia oil may be a potential lipid-lowering oil, especially to prevent and treat high-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress (Han et al., 2020Han K, Li XY, Zhang YQ, He YL, Hu R, Lu XL, Li QJ, Hui J. 2020. Chia Seed Oil Prevents High Fat Diet Induced Hyperlipidemia and Oxidative Stress in Mice. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.122, 1900443. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201900443).
4. CONCLUSIONS
⌅There is still no consensus on what dosage of chia oil is ideal for generating health benefits, with doses ranging from 0.1g/mL to 111.1g/mL and supplementation times of 1 to 33 weeks.
The studies reported increased liver ALA, EPA, and DHA contents, a decreased n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio, an improved lipid profile, increased HDL-c, and decreased total cholesterol. Increased PPAR-α gene expression, improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, and improved antioxidant status through the increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as SOD, plasma CAT, GPx, and GR, were also observed.
It is concluded that chia oil has shown beneficial metabolic effects on organisms in preclinical studies, acting on glycemic homeostasis, lipid profiles and oxidative stress markers.