Three T2 generations (L6, L11 and L21) of the peanut cv. huayu26, developed using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation as described by Chen et al. (2015), were used for the experiments. The transgenic lines and the wild-type plants were grown in the field together under normal conditions. For the salt treatments, mature seeds of wild-type and T2 transgenic lines were sown in tap-water containing 90 or 100 mM NaCl.

A truncated ORF of AhPEPC1 (GenBank accession number EU391629) starting at base 1,784 was cloned into the pCAMBIA 1301 expression vector in antisense orientation at the Xba I/Kpn I sites. The pCAMBIA 1301 plasmid (GenBank accession number AF234297) is a binary vector with both the hpt and GUS genes in the T-DNA region and an extra set of vir genes. The construct was transformed into Agrobacterium host strain LBA4404 using the freeze-thaw method as described previously (Chen et al., 2015).

Genomic DNA was isolated by the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide method using young leaf tissues of wild-type and transgenic peanut plants. The transgenic lines were confirmed by PCR using marker gene hygromycin phosphotransferase (hpt)-specific primers. The 683-bp hpt gene fragment was amplified using the primers Hpt-aF (5′-CGAAAAGTTCGACAGCGTCTC-3′) and Hpt-aR (5′-GCTCCATACAAGCCAACCAC-3′). The amplified products were analyzed by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gels.

Total RNA was isolated from leaves using the RNeasy Mini Kit instructions (Tiangen, China). The cDNA of peanut was synthesized using M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Promega, USA) in a 25-μL reaction that contained 2 μg of total RNA. A qRT-PCR analysis was performed using a LightCycler 2.0 instrument system (Roche, Germany). The α-tubulin 5 gene (AhTUA5) was selected as a reference gene (Chi et al., 2012). Six pairs of gene-specific primers (Table 1) were designed after an analysis of the target gene sequences. qRT-PCR reactions were performed using the SYBR Premix Ex Taq polymerase (TaKaRa, Japan) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Each 20 μL reaction was comprised of 2 μL template, 10 μL 2× SYBR Premix, and 0.4 μL (200 nM) of each primer. The reactions were subjected to an initial denaturation step of 95°C·10 s^–1, followed by 40 cycles of 95°C·5 s^–1, 60°C·30 s^–1 and 72°C·10 s^–1. A melting curve analysis was performed at the end of the PCR run over the range 60–95°C, increasing the temperature stepwise by 0.5°C every 10 s. The baseline and quantification cycle were automatically determined using the Light Cycler Software. No template controls were included for each primer pair, and each PCR was carried out in triplicate. The relative quantification method (delta-delta Cp) was used to evaluate quantitative variation (Livak and Schmittgen, 2001).

Crude peanut oil was extracted from seeds by the Soxhlet extraction method (Harwood, 1984). Briefly, 1 g of sample was ground and then extracted with petroleum ether in a Soxhlet apparatus for 8 h. The petroleum ether was then volatilized in a ventilated place and the residue was measured using an electronic balance. The oil content was calculated by the difference of the weight of the sample and the residue.

Crude peanut protein was extracted from seeds by the Kjeldahl Method. 0.5 g sample was put in the flask and heated to digest at 420 ºC after adding two pieces of catalyst and 15 mL sulfuric acid. The boiled liquid was then analyzed using the full-automatic azotometer (Kjeltec TM2300, FOSS, Danmark) according to the operating instructions.

The fatty acid composition of peanut oil was determined using GC (Agilent 7890A, USA). Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared as follows. Clean seeds were crushed and 20 mg of sample were placed in the test tube. Then 1 mL benzene: petroleum ether (1:1), 1.5 mL sodium methoxide (0.5M), and a 2 mL saturated NaCl solution were added to the test tube in the proper sequence, and the supernatant was obtained by static. The initial column temperature was set as 210 ºC and maintained for nine minutes, and then it was raised to 230 ºC and held for 8 min. Helium was used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 10 mL/min. 1 μL of sample was injected using the split mode injection system.

The statistical analyses were performed using the mean values and standard errors (SEs) of three replicates per analysis. The significance of a treatment effect was determined by performing a one-way analysis of variance using SPSS 17.0 (Statistical Package For Social Sciences, SPSS Inc., Illinois).

To investigate the physiological functionality of AhPEPC1, an antisense cDNA (a truncated open reading frame starting at base 1,784) of AhPEPC1 under the control of a CaMV 35S promoter (AhPEPC1-AS) was transected into peanuts. The transgenic lines (AhPEPC1-AS) of peanuts were selected by hygromycin and further confirmed by the PCR amplification of the hpt gene (Figure 1; Chen et al., 2015). The transgenic plants (AhPEPC1-AS) were regenerated; and three independent lines (L6, L11 and L21) were obtained.

To check the effects of AhPEPC1-AS in the transgenic lines, the transcription levels of AhPEPC1, AhPEPC2, AhPEPC3, AhPEPC4 and AhPEPC5 in the leaves were analyzed by real-time PCR. Compared with the wild-type plants, the transcription of AhPEPC1 in the leaves of the transgenic lines was specifically down-regulated, while the transcription of AhPEPC2, AhPEPC3, AhPEPC4 and AhPEPC5 were not repressed (Figure 2). Thus, AhPEPC1 could be selectively down-regulated. However, in line L6, the expression levels of AhPEPC2, AhPEPC3, AhPEPC4 and AhPEPC5 were slightly increased (Figure 2). This result indicated that the suppression of AhPEPC1 possibly caused the improved transcription of the other PEPC genes. Thus, there were significant differences among the transgenic plants possibly because of the insertion position, or the copy number, of the transgene.

Phenotypically, all three of the transgenic lines (L6, L11 and L21) were similar to the wild-type plants under normal conditions, with no growth or developmental abnormalities (Table 2). This indicated that the insertion of the transgene did not disrupt any major endogenous functional gene(s).

To evaluate the effects of AhPEPC1 on seed oil content, mature seeds of the wild-type and transgenic peanut lines were simultaneously collected and analyzed. As shown in Figure 3a, the wild-type seeds contained 0.505±0.003 g lipid per g dry seed (n=3). Whereas the lipid contents of L6, L11 and L21 seeds were 0.534±0.007 (n=3), 0.542±0.006 (n=3) and 0.557±0.004 (n=3) g per g dry seed, respectively (Figure 3a). The lipid contents of the transgenic lines increased by 5.7%–10.3%. Compared with the wild-type plants, the transgenic lines had significant increases in their lipid contents. However, fatty acid compositions had no significant changes in the seeds of wild-type plants and transgenic lines (Figure 3c).

At the same time, the seed protein contents of wild-type and transgenic peanut lines were also detected. As shown in Figure 3b, the wild-type seeds contained 0.235±0.003 g protein per g dry seed (n=3). And the protein contents of L6, L11 and L21 seeds were 0.217±0.003 (n=3), 0.205±0.003 (n=3) and 0.195±0.004 (n=3) g per g dry seed, respectively (Figure 3b). The protein contents of the transgenic lines decreased by 7.5%–17.0%. This result was consistent with the down-regulated transcription of the AhPEPC1 gene in the transgenic lines.

Atppc1 is induced by salt stress in roots (Sanchez et al., 2006). However, in peanut leaves, AhPEPC1 transcription was dramatically down regulated from 8 to 72 h post-treatment with 200 mM salt (Figure 4). To assess the salt tolerance of the transgenic plants, the wild-type and transgenic plants were grown in tap water with or without a salt treatment. The average root lengths of the wild-type and transgenic 7-d-old seedlings were not significantly different in tap water without the salt treatment (Figure 5a). In tap water with the salt treatment, the transgenic plants had longer roots than the wild-type. The average root length of the transgenic plants was 2.8–4.5 times longer than that of the wild-type plants in tap water containing 90 mM NaCl (Figure 5b), and the average root length of the transgenic plants was 4.0–6.7 times longer than that of the wild-type plants in tap water containing 100 mM NaCl. Thus, AhPEPC1 suppression could partially relieve the inhibition of root growth caused by the salt treatment, and the effect became more apparent as the salt concentration increased.